🌐 Features of the English Language

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1. International Language

Definition: English is the most widely spoken second language in the world and is used as a global means of communication.

Explanation: Spoken in more than 100 countries. Official or second language in international organizations like the UN, WHO, IMF. Used in aviation, diplomacy, business, and technology.

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2. Rich Vocabulary

Definition: English has one of the largest vocabularies of any language.

Explanation: More than 600,000 words (as per Oxford Dictionary). Influences from Latin, French, German, and Greek. Allows for subtle expression and precise communication.

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3. Flexible and Adaptable

Definition: English adapts easily to new terms and concepts.

Explanation: Frequently borrows words (e.g., “guru” from Hindi, “safari” from Swahili).

New words and slang are added every year.  Useful in evolving fields like science and technology.

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4. Grammar Structure

Definition: English grammar is relatively simple in terms of inflection.

Explanation: Does not use gendered nouns like many other languages. Uses auxiliary verbs (“do,” “be,” “have”) to form questions and negatives.

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5. Phonetic and Non-Phonetic Nature

Definition: English is not strictly phonetic, meaning pronunciation does not always match spelling.

Explanation: Words like “colonel” and “island” are pronounced differently from how they are spelled. This can be challenging for learners. However, consistent spelling patterns help with reading and writing.

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6. Global Media and Literature

Definition: English dominates the world of books, movies, internet, and academic journals.

Explanation: 80% of the world’s electronically stored information is in English. Shakespeare, Dickens, and modern authors have enriched English literature. Widely used in pop culture and entertainment.

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7. Standardized Testing and Education

Definition: English is the primary language of academic and professional testing globally.

Explanation: Tests like TOEFL, IELTS, and GRE are in English. Medium of instruction in many top universities across the world. Important for global education and employment.

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8. Use of Idioms and Phrasal Verbs

Definition: English makes rich use of idiomatic expressions.

Explanation: Makes the language colorful and expressive.

Examples: "Break the ice", "Kick the bucket", "Look up to someone". Can be difficult for non-native speakers but essential for fluency.

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9. Tense System

Definition: English has a detailed tense system to indicate time.

Explanation:  12 basic tenses: present, past, future (each with simple, continuous, perfect, perfect continuous). Helps in expressing nuanced time frames.

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10. Cultural Diversity and Inclusiveness

Definition: English embraces expressions and vocabulary from various cultures.

Explanation: Blends with local dialects (e.g., Indian English, British English, American English). Allows cultural identity to be expressed through language.

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11. Widely Used in Technology and Science

Definition: Most of the scientific and technical terms are in English.

👉 Example: “computer”, “software”, “virus”, “internet”, “robot”.

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12. Common Language of Education

Definition: Many top universities (like Oxford, Harvard, IITs) use English.

👉 Most textbooks, research papers, and international exams (TOEFL, IELTS) are in English.

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13. Helpful for Career Growth

Definition: English is needed for good jobs, especially in international companies.

👉 Interviews, emails, meetings, and presentations are often in English.

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14. Easy to Learn and Teach

Definition: English has many learning resources — books, apps, videos, teachers.

👉 Even beginners can start learning quickly using simple tools.

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15. English is Creative

Definition: English allows you to play with words, create poetry, stories, and fun expressions.

👉 Example: Idioms like “break the ice”, “piece of cake”, “once in a blue moon”.

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📌 Summary

Feature	Description
International	Used globally for communication
Rich Vocabulary	Extensive word stock
Flexible	Adopts new words easily
Simple Grammar	Less inflection, SVO structure
Non-Phonetic	Spelling and pronunciation differ
Global Media	Dominates internet, literature
Academic Use	Used in global tests and education
Idioms	Makes language expressive
Tenses	Detailed time expression
Inclusiveness	Accepts cultural variations

Factors Influencing the Development of the English Language

 

📘 Factors Influencing the Development of the English Language

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1. Historical Influences

Explanation:
The English language has evolved through several historical stages, shaped by invasions, settlements, and conquests.

• Old English (450–1100 AD): Influenced by Anglo-Saxon (Germanic tribes like Angles, Saxons, Jutes).
• Middle English (1100–1500 AD): Norman Conquest introduced many French and Latin words.
• Modern English (1500 onwards): The Renaissance, printing press, and colonization shaped vocabulary and grammar.

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2. Colonial Expansion

Explanation:
The British Empire spread English across continents during the 16th to 20th centuries.

• English became the administrative and educational language in colonies (e.g., India, Africa, the Caribbean).
• Local words were added to English (e.g., “bungalow,” “karma,” “safari”).
• English evolved into regional varieties like Indian English, Caribbean English, and African English.

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3. Trade and Commerce

Explanation:
Global trade helped English grow as a lingua franca (common language) for business and shipping.

• Merchants and traders needed a common language for communication.
• English was standardized in shipping, banking, and international trade.
• New commercial terms were adopted into the language.

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4. Scientific and Technological Advancements

Explanation:
Scientific discoveries and inventions were often recorded and shared in English.

• The Industrial Revolution and modern scientific publications used English.
• English became the dominant language of research papers, patents, and journals.
• New words were coined (e.g., “internet,” “software,” “robot,” “genetics”).

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5. Influence of Media and Pop Culture

Explanation:
Mass media, movies, music, and the internet played a major role in the global spread of English.

• Hollywood films, pop music, and TV shows are popular worldwide.
• English phrases and slang spread through digital platforms (e.g., “selfie,” “LOL,” “viral”).
• Influences from American and British culture affect pronunciation and vocabulary.

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6. Education Systems Worldwide

Explanation:
English is often taught as a second language or medium of instruction in schools globally.

• Seen as a language of opportunity and success.
• Required in many international competitive exams (e.g., IELTS, TOEFL, GRE).
• Used in higher education, particularly in science, medicine, and technology.

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7. Migration and Globalization

Explanation:
Global movement of people increased interaction among English speakers and non-speakers.

• Immigration to the US, UK, Canada, and Australia brought new accents and influences.
• Globalization in the 20th and 21st centuries made English essential in international communication.
• English borrowed words from other languages and adopted multicultural expressions.

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8. Standardization through Printing and Dictionaries

Explanation:
The invention of the printing press helped unify and standardize English.

• William Caxton introduced the printing press to England in 1476.
• Standard grammar and spelling became widespread.
• Samuel Johnson’s dictionary (1755) helped formalize English vocabulary.

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9. Internet and Digital Communication

Explanation:
The digital age made English the dominant language online.

• Most websites and social media platforms use English.
• Emergence of internet slang, emojis, abbreviations (e.g., “BRB,” “OMG,” “hashtag”).
• Blending of spoken and written language forms.

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10. Political and Economic Power of English-speaking Nations

Explanation:
The dominance of the United States and United Kingdom in global affairs boosted the status of English.

• English used in diplomacy, international law, and military cooperation.
• Associated with economic progress, power, and modernity.
• Encouraged non-English-speaking countries to adopt it in official and commercial settings.
• Absolutely! Here are some extra points you can add to your answer to make it more complete and impressive — all in easy English

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11. English is Flexible

English can easily add new words from other languages or make new ones.

👉 Example: Words like “guru” (from Hindi), “sushi” (from Japanese), and “emoji” (from Japanese) are now used in English.

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12. Different English Accents and Varieties

English is spoken in many different ways around the world.

👉 Example:

British English (UK)

American English (USA)

Indian English (India)

Australian English (Australia)

All are English, but have different words, pronunciation, and spelling.

The Origin and Development of English Language

Utkarsh Education

What is “Origin”?

Origin means the starting point or beginning of something.

So, the origin of the English language means:

👉 Where and how the English language started and how it changed over time.

 

Origin and Development of English Language

However, nothing can be said authentically about the origin of language, although there are several theories, which have been expanded in support of its origin, but these theories are based on speculation and surmises. It can be said that a language is recognized when it becomes a forceful medium of expression or communication of feelings as well as emotions. If we have a glance over the development of English language, we notice a gradual development and enrichment by the valuable contribution and impact of other languages and their literature.

English language did not occupy reputed place in antiguity rather it was neglected and looked down by the then upper class society. As a matter of fact, English was spoken by rustics and lower class of society. When Germanic and Franco Latin literature was furnished, English also became rich language and literature.

Firstly Anglo Saxon literature contributed English and secondly, the literature imparted from France by the Normans, helped in its development. Anglo Saxon literature was cultivated by the Teutonic tribes, which invaded Britain at the end of the Vth century. This literature in the outcome of the work of clerks during the period from VIIth to XIth century. In the Latin literature of the age, some renowned persons like Aldhelm (640-709), Prede (673-735), Mark of Jarrow and Aluim (735-804) wrote in Latin and composed some English views and songs in English. First creation of the erudities of language is poetry. The most pre-dominant and notable characteristics of the Germanic language, spoken by Anglo Saxon are consonants. But this is not the strict rule to use this metre, but the alteration may be formed by vowels also.

Further old English possessed the facility of forming compound words. These compound words display the original sense by their elements which form then; e.g.. geal-adi (gall disease) is jaundice. Lic-song (the corpse song) is a dirgelie tun (the town of corpses) is the cemetery etc. Then, the use of compound words was common to both poetry and prose, but independent English language and its literature has yet not come in existence. Poeta used such words for ornamen to bring emphasis or effect.

Thus, up to 9th century. English poetry or prose had no identification literature. Towards the middle of Xth century a remarkable advancement w made in English culture by the re-establishment of the Benedictive Monaster One of the pupils of this school, at Winchester Alfric cultivated more refine prose, which was more musical and poetic. So, on the whole, Anglo Saxon pro is much nearer to modern prose.

Gradually the Anglo Saxon vocabulary was being transferred by the disappearance of its poetic terms and new words went on making their place in the language. These new words were supplied by the Normans. Besides the Anglo Saxon words became modified in form and pronunciation and change resulted in the form of shortened words. Thus, Anglo Saxon became gradually modified into modern English with its simple grammar.

Thus, we can see, that the history of English language is usually described as covering three stages-Old English up to about 1150, Middle English upto about 1500 and then Modern English. The gap between modern language and the old English is now so great that old English has to be studied as if it were foreign language. 

1. Old English (Early Period of English Language) upto about 1150

The origin of English can be traced further back, beyond the dialects of the early Germanic settlers, to the West Germanic languages spoken by tribes in North-West Germany around the beginning of the Christian Era. These Wes German languages are in turn part of a wider Germanic group, which include the Scandinavian languages. All of these form a branch of the Indo-European family of languages, spoken from Northern India to the Atlantic coast of Europe. Due to kinship among all these languages Persian, Hindi, Spanish, Galtic and English alike and others lies in the many words (in different forms) that they have in common, e.g., we find words equivalent to snow, birch, wolf, honey ant beech. The only difference between Germanic languages from the other Indo European tongues is that verbs can be grouped into two classes, called 'weak and 'strong, according to the form of their past tense.

The various Anglo Saxon tribes in England has different dialects. Of these, West Saxon is the most important today. The Latin alphabet was widely all over Europe. The core of our modern English vocabulary, is of old English stock. There was difference in the grammar and inflections, the ending of words show their relationships with other words. Old English showed these relationships by of inflections that indicated grammatical classifications. Thus, old English was by no means as adjudged from the modern standards. As relationships between words were indicated by inflection, there was no crucial need for related words to be positioned next to each other. This complex use of inflections was breaking down throughout the old English period but it was so well established that the changes began to appear late in the written English. On account of Scandinavian influence on spoken English between IXth and XIth centuries. Many Scandinavian words come readily into English and contributed to the dialects of Northern and Eastern England eg.. cracked, bath, skill, husband and Thursday. 

2. Middle English Period (1150 to 1500)

English came back into general literary use in the 14th Century, by this time, the writing habits that had been ingrained in old English were quite forgotten. Writers now adopted many French conventions, using qu-in words like queen or queak, instead of the old English. The French symbols-ou- and -ow-were used to represent the /-00 sound that in old English had been written -U (hus "a house"). Changes in pronunciation were already taking place in. Later old English, continued rapidly and new spellings were adopted to represent the new sounds, e.g., old English spellings such as stan and ham (for a stone' and 'a home') now became stone and home. Besides this, French words too began to appear in English writing. Geoffrey Chaucer, a fairly representative user of Middle English, used a high proportion of French words in his poetry. He compared a long descriptive poem, "The Canterbury Tales'. In this poem he chose thirty pilgrims and drew a portrait of each one. These portraits (prologue) display his skill of human and irony and so he is known as Father of English poetry. By about 1400, the year of Chaucer's death, more than half of English vocabulary consisted of French imports. Thus, the most obvious change in middle English was the loss of old inflected endings. Chaucer's English is much more intelligible to the modern readers.

3. Modern English Period (Early Renaissance and Afterwards)

Between Old and Middle English period, grammatical and vocabulary changes were most dramatic but between Middle and Modern English, it was pronunciation changes, that marked the transition most strongly. After Chaucer's time, the Vowel sounds, particularly long Vowels underwent a process of modification and it has become known as the Great Vowel shift. English language gradually but slowly achieved its proper place during 15th and 16th centuries. English became the language of cultured society and covered for flung area on the globe. Thomas Wyatt (1503) and Surrey (1517) are the most important names who served English Literature. The literary works of Philip Sidney (1554) appeared between the years 1518 and 1582, but were published after his death. Edmund Spender felt that the purity of the language could be preserved only by reviving old words and using words from dialect. Thus, Renaissance or Elizabethan period was full of great poets, dramatists and essayists. This period is rich in all its manifestation. Shakespeare, Spencer and Bacon are the shining stars of this period. English achieved its highest position and glory during this period.

The major movement in language was the attempt to establish rules of correctness in the 17th Century, now the first time, dictionaries defining the meanings of words were published and Dr. Samuel Johnson in 1755 contributed in this field. Throughout the 19th and 20th Centuries, the debates about standards of correctness and acceptability to be debated and during the first of the 20th Century under the influence of radio, there was a strong move towards a prescribed standard.

Here's a detailed yet easy-to-understand explanation of the origin of the English language, suitable for students, projects, or essays:

🕰️ Historical Timeline of English Language Origin in short 

1. Old English (450–1150 AD)

Where it came from:

Around 450 AD, Germanic tribes (Anglo, Saxons, Jutes) came to Britain from northern Europe (now Germany and Denmark).

They brought their own languages, which slowly mixed and formed Old English.

Key Points:

Very different from modern English.

Hard to understand for us today.

Example word: “hwaet” (means “what”)

2. Middle English (1100–1500 AD)

What changed:

In 1066, Normans from France invaded England (Battle of Hastings).

They brought Norman French, which mixed with Old English.

Latin words (used by the church) also entered the language.

Key Points:

English grammar became simpler.

Many French words were added (e.g., “government”, “court”, “justice”).

Writers like Geoffrey Chaucer wrote in Middle English (e.g., The Canterbury Tales).

3. Early Modern English (1500–1700 AD)

What changed:

The Renaissance period brought many new ideas and words from Latin and Greek.

Printing press was invented (by William Caxton in 1476), which helped spread standard English.

English spelling started to become fixed.

Key Points:

Shakespeare wrote in this period.

Many new words were created (e.g., “lonely”, “majestic”, “hurry”).

Grammar and vocabulary became more like modern English.

4. Modern English (1700–Present)

What changed:

English continued to grow with words from science, technology, and global cultures.

The British Empire spread English to many parts of the world (India, Africa, Australia).

American English developed with its own accent and vocabulary.

Key Points:

English became a global language.

Vocabulary keeps growing (e.g., “internet”, “selfie”, “blog”).

English now has many accents and varieties.

🌍 Sources of English Vocabulary

Language Example Words

Latin animal, data, school

French court, beauty, prince

Germanic house, strong, child

Greek photo, biology, telephone

Hindi bungalow, guru, jungle

📝 Final Summary

> The English language started over 1,500 years ago from Germanic tribes. Over time, it changed by adding words from French, Latin, Greek, and many other languages. Today, English is a rich, global, and modern language used in almost every part of the world.

Translation-Cum-Grammar Method

Translation-Cum-Grammar Method

This method is also known as classical method. It is the oldest method and came in India with the Britishers. In this method, the words, phrases, idioms and sentences are taught with the help of examples in the mother tongue. The sentences in English and mother tongue were compared side by side. Theory of language is interpreted in detail, but there was very little practice given on the use of language. This method has no psychological base but has two philosophical bases, viz,:

1. A foreign language can be easily learnt through translation. 

2. Grammar is the soul of language.

Principles of Translation-cum-Grammar Method

Thompson and Wyatt say that this method is based on the sound principles:

1. Translation interprets foreign phraseology best.

2. In the process of interpretation, the foreign phraseology assimilated and 

3. The structure for a foreign language is best learnt when compared and contrasted with that of the mother-tongue.

Characteristics of Translation-cum-Grammar Method

Characteristics of this method are as follows:

i) The unit of teaching is word and not sentence.

(ii) Text books occupy an important place in this method. 

(iii) Mother tongue dominates or is used for explaining the meaning of English words, sentences and grammatical rules. 

(iv) Translation of paragraphs from mother tongue into English and vice versa is given to the students for practice. 

(v) Grammar is taught by deductive method, i.e., the teacher explains the rules of grammar and the students memorise it by rote method. 

(vi) Stress is laid on reading and writing.

(vii) During the process of translation and grammar method, the structures of English language can be learnt easily. This is because of linguistic materials presented for study.

Procedure

There are two kinds of translation method, i.e., (1) Translation from English into mother tongue. (2) Translation from mother tongue into English. In this method, the text book occupies an important place as it has all reading materials.

Following steps are involved in this method:

Step I. The teacher selects the passages of English in accordance with the intellectual level of the students and makes ideal reading of the passage. The he begins the lesson with the vocabulary items. The meanings of the words an explained in the mother-tongue to the learner. 

Step II. The teacher translates the passage with the help of mother tongue. 

Step III. The teacher explains the grammar items in the mother tongue. 

Step IV. The learners are asked to copy the grammar rules in their note books. This is followed by exercises based on grammatical items. The learner may also be asked to translate into foreign language sentences from the mother tongue by using grammatical items already learnt.

Step V. Finally the unfinished exercises and learning of rules are given as assignment. 

Thus, this method starts with the meaning of words and then explains the meaning of phrases and sentences.

Merits (Advantages) of this Method. 

Translation-cum-Grammar method has following merits:

(i) This method is economical at it saves time and energy of the teacher to teach a foreign language. 

(ii) It enhances students vocabulary.

(iii) This method is based on the principles of psychology as it is based in Appreciative theory'. This theory states, "Learning connect old and new ideas." 

(iv) This method gives inspiration for independent study. 

(v) It helps in better and clear understanding of words, phrases and idioms which can be translated into mother-tongue. Thus, it enables in better understanding of a foreign language.

(vi) It follows the maxim "proceed from known to unknown." As the child is already familiar with his mother tongue, he can easily comprehend in English.

(vii) It enables the students to write correct English by telling the rules of grammar first.

(viii) This method is convenient for Indian teachers because they are not required to use material aid while teaching.

(ix) It is effective method and can be used in over crowded classes.

(x) English grammar is easily learnt through comparative process. answer in mother tongue. 

 

Demerits (Limitations) of this Method. 

Some of the demerits of Translation-cum-Grammar method are as following: 

1. This method does not give emphasis on speaking, reading and writing aspects.

2. It does not teach correct articulation, intonation, and pronunciation.

3. There are some words, idioms and phrases in English, which reflect the culture, traditions and customs of English people. They cannot be translated into mother-tongue without losing the word correct effect.

4. English language has some such structures which cannot be translated into Indian languages, e. g. "the".

5. Sometimes the literal translation becomes e. g. was thinking-Mai tha soch raha. Sweet' opines, 'Only a limited number of sentences can be taught by this method."

6. It lays much emphasis on grammar, so teaching becomes monotonous.

7. This method does not establish harmony between thought and expression. 

8. This method disregards the maxim of "proceeding from whole to part method" as in this method the unit of teaching is word (put) and not the sentence (whole).

9. It neglects silent reading by the pupils.

10. This method is dull and uninteresting for the students who remain passive listeners.

 Suggestions for Improvement 

The shortcoming of this method can be lightened if the following suggestions are followed:

(1) Large clauses should be divided into small groups. 

(2) Questions should be distributed equally in the class.

(3) Teachers should speak with correct pronunciation and grammatically correct sentences. 

(4) Teachers should stress those points at which Indian vernaculars use differ from English. 

(5) Students should be asked to do much written work.

(6) Chorus work, for instance, singing poems should be done.

Preparation of Blue Print of Achievement Test Or Construction of Achievement Test

 Preparation of Blue Print of Achievement Test Or Construction of Achievement Test

Preparation of Blue Print of achievement test is very important for examination in English because it consists of objective type of questions indicating the number of items in each cell. It is prepared in accordance with objectives of teachings, subject-matter in curriculum and types of questions by determining quantitative weightage and organizing the questions in three dimensional chart. This is known as blue print of test. While constructing the achievement test, based on blue print, the following things should be kept in mind

(i) Individual differences.

(ii) Questions should be balanced.

(iii) Results should be same.

(iv) Language in the scoring key should be easy.

(v) Maximum children should be able to attempt it.

Steps in Preparation of Blue Print

Step-1-Instructional Objectives: The objective is to test the knowledge, understanding, application and skill of the students. In languages, the major objectives are categorized as knowledge, comprehension and expression.

Step-2-Design: It specifies weightages to:

(a) Weightage of Teaching Objectives: Generally, test should be for the fulfillment of all objectives of teaching. So prior to the preparation of the test all the required weightage on objectives of teachings should be determined:

(b) Weightage to Content Units: While preparing blue print of achievement test, it is necessary to cover, entire subject-matter so it becomes essential to determine weightage, keeping in view the extension of different subject-matter, and the importance pertaining to the subject-matter. If the topics in subject-matter are large in number, then it will be convenient to classify the topics into units.

Weightage to content units

(c) Weightage to the Different Forms of Questions: After determining marks on objectives and content unit, it is essential to pay attention on the types of questions for test. So it should also be determined as to how many of the questions of each type (essay type/short answer objectives) are to be prescribed and what weightage should be laid on them.

(d) Weightage to Difficulty Level: It should also be noted that the level of the questions should neither be very difficult nor very easy. The questions level should grow from easy to difficult gradually. They should be divided into three levels. Easy questions should be at first, average questions in middle and difficult questions in the last. According to difficulty level, weightage can be determined.

Step-III-Blue Print: A blue print is a distribution of the weightage that various aspects of English should have in a test specially constructed for it. It is a pre-requisite at the planning stage. It helps to guide a teacher in constructing a test. It indicates the weightage to be given to various skills and the types of test.

Blue Print of English I paper of class X for the Examination of Board of Secondary Education

Audio-Visual Aids In The Teaching Of English

AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS IN THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH

In teaching, the teacher conveys some concepts to students When to convey the concepts more efficiently and successfully to students, the help of some verbal-visual material things is taken, those things are called audio-visual aids. The rationale is to appeal to eyes and ears of pupils and make the learning easy as well as permanent. It is the era of audio-visual aids in Education. Prof. C. S. Bhandari opines, "Our aim of teaching English is to import certain skills without making the process of teaching and learning monotonous." Here audio-visual aids come as rescue. Although a teacher is the best audio-visual aid, he does need some other audio- visual aids to supplement him. These aids help him in imparting good instruction. F. W. Noel is right when he says, "Good instruction is the foundation of any educational programme. Audio- visual training aids are a component part of that foundation." Hence, an English teacher should know about the various audio-visual aids he can use successfully in teaching English.

Types of Audio-Visual Aids :

The different types of audio-visual aids can put into three categories:

(a) Audio Aids: All those materials which function as aids by appealing to the ears only are called audio aids. They are usually used to form speech habit. 

The following are the main audio aids :

1. Gramophone, Linguaphone and Headphone

2. Tape-recorder.

3. Radio

(b) Visual Aids: Material aids which appeal only to eyes are called visual aids. Some visual aids are:

4. Text-book

5. Black-board.

6. Flannel-board

7. Flash-cards

8. Pictures

9. Charts maps. figures and models

10. Slides and films strips.

11. Epidiascope.

(c) Audio-Visual Aids: These are the aids which appeal to both ears and eyes. These aids are expensive. The following are included in it:

12. Film

13. Television

The use of all these aids in teaching English is described in the following lines

1. Gramophone, Linguaphone and Headphone: 

These aids are very useful in teaching students to speak English and correct pronunciation. The linguaphones assist in learning English sounds. Gramophones and linguaphones are cheaper than other audio aids. In them, records are available with booklets. They repeat speech patterns with correct pronunciation, intonation etc. over and over again. The material is carefully selected and graded. One record is worth three complete lessons. Linguaphones are also used to teach grammatical structure, poetry, usage, etc. Such records can be available from the English Language Teaching Institute, Allahabad. The English teacher should know the technique of stopping and restarting the records. The headphones solve the problem of dealing with individual students. With this he can attend each student.

2. Tape-recorder: 

It is a costly aid. It records the words uttered by a speaker. Those words can be reproduced later on as many times as desired. In teaching English, it can be used for the following purposes :-

(a) Speech-correction.

(b) Reading a talk, story, play, poetry, pronunciation of different word, etc.

(c) Reading improvement

(d) Musical appriciation.

(e) Sound knowledge.

(f) Teacher's comments on film strips and slides etc.

Tape-recorders should be used for well selected material and it should be presented stage by stage. But the teacher must know that by writing them off and on, he can spoil the effect. Pointing towards the importance of gramophone and tape-recorder, S. R. Ingram has said, "If used intelligently, the gramophone and the tape-recorder can help the teacher to provide a wider range of linguistic experience, variety in material and style and a real stimulus to individual effort."

3. Radio: 

Radio is a useful aid in language learning, since comprehensive courses in language learning are presented by radio. It can prove more useful by:

(i) The co-operation between educational and broadcasting authorities.

(ii) Recording radio broadcasts.

(iii) Making the broadcasting programme known to pupils

(iv) Adjusting the periods of English with the broadcast.

The following are the merits of radio as an aid :-

(i) It helps in developing comprehension by listening.

(ii) It gives the correct spoken language.

(iii) It presents the lectures of outstanding speakers.

(iv) It can be used inside as well as outside the class-room.

(v) It is cheaper.

But the following are the main demerits of radio :-

(i) Repetition is not possible.

(ii) Adjustment between English periods and broadcasting time becomes very difficult.

(iii) Children sometimes find it uninteresting due to impersonal touch.

4. Text-book: 

It is an aid as well as a method. In olden days, too, books served as aids. These days, text-books are according to the curriculum prescribed for a class. A text book should have the following qualities:-

(i) The subject-matter should be based on students' liking and interest. 

(ii) The matter should be graded properly.

(iii) The subject-matter should be practical. 

(iv) Books should be attractive and illustrative.

(v) These should cover the objectives of teaching English. 

(vi) At the end, sufficient exercises should be given

(vii) They should be well printed but not costly.

5. Black-board: 

It is the cheapest aid which can be handled easily. Almost in every school, in every class, there are black-boards. They are of different types such as wall, standing, reversible. The boards should be in light green colour which, soothes eyes. This aid can be used for the following purposes in English teaching :-

(i) For exposition and explanation of words.

(ii) For teaching structures.

(iii) For teaching grammatical forms.

(iv) For teaching writing.

(v) For writing sentences, answers and compositions.

(vi) For drawing figures and pictures.

(vii) Finally, for testing.

The teacher should follow the following suggestions in order to make the black-board a useful aid -

(i) The board should be put in a correct place. Every student of the class should be in a position to see it.

(ii) The teacher should write in straight lines with agreeable space

(iii) Coloured chalks should be used for drawing sketches and pictures

(iv) The black-board writing should be legible.

(v) While writing on the board, some attention should be given to the class

(vi) The board should be cleaned before leaving the class.

(vii) Too much use should be avoided.

6. Flannel-board: 

It is also called a flannelgraph or felt-board. It can be made easily A board of plywood is covered with flannel or felt. The board should be 60 cm x 90 cm. Figures, pictures, pieces of papers etc. with sand paper on their backs can be stuck to it. They can be easily removed. It can be used for:

(i) Teaching reading.

(ii) Teaching story

(iii) Teaching word and sentence

(iv) Teaching oral composition.

As the teaching proceeds, pictures, figures, words and sentences written on pieces of paper are demonstrated by the teacher one by one on the flannel-board.

7. Flash-cards: 

Flash-cards are like playing-cards or post- cards. They can be 15 inches long and 2 or 3 inches wide. They are made of soft thick papers. On them, pictures are made with illustrative words or sentences written below them. They can also help in mastering correct word order and speech habits.

8. Pictures: 

These are widely used and are very useful aids in teaching English. There is an old Chinese saying, "A picture is worth ten thousand words." According to Ruskin, "A room without pictures is like a house without windows." In teaching English, pictures of schools, shop, market, fair, railway station, post-office, river, mountain, man, boys, girls, festivals and picturesque scenes can be shown to the class for teaching: 

(i) vocabulary 

(ii) structures 

(iii) com- position and 

(iv) dramatization. 

Pictures can be of these kinds :

(a) Picture-postcards

(b) Snap-shots

(c) Cutouts from newspapers and periodicals and

(d) Wall pictures.

Advantages of Pictures Some of various advantages of pictures in English teaching are as follows:

(i) They are useful in Direct Method. Pupils can easily form an association between the word and its meaning.

(ii) The help in developing aesthetic sense.

(iii) They also help in developing observation and imagining powers of students

(iv) They are the means of giving concrete form to abstract things.

(V) They are based on psychological principle of interest,

Some Suggestions

Following are some suggestions to make pictures more useful as a teaching aid

(i) They should not be overused.

(ii) They should be put at a place from where pupil can see them.

(iii) Pictures should be bright and colourful.

(iv) They should be clear contrast of light, colour and out- line with a lot of life and movement in the scenes.

(v) They should have a clear bearing over the lesson.

9. Figures, Charts, Maps, and Models: 

Within figures come sketches and diagrams Figures and charts are valuable aids. They are neither costly nor difficult to handle. The teacher can draw them on the board or on paper. They supplement the work of pictures. Things which cannot be taught with pictures and are not clear through a picture can be taught by figures and charts Vocabulary, grammar, stories, sentence structures can be taught through them. Maps can be used in teaching about cities, countries, rivers, mountains, oceans, seas, etc. Models are used to give an illusion of reality. They are made of clay, plastic, cardboard, paper, rubber word etc. They can facilitate Direct Method According to F. G French, "We can use the models for telling stories, for conversation. and for making the abstract language feel."

10. Slides and Filmstrips Slides and filmstrips are other useful aids for showing objects and actions. Slides are single, whereas filmstrips exhibit a series in a compact and economical form.  They can prove efficient in teaching (1) sentence structure (i) oral and written composition of life, society and culture of peoples of different countries and (iv) stories. The educational slides are available from the Directorate of Extension, Programmes for Secondary Education, New Delhi and foreign embassies. 

11. Epidiascope: 

It is an easily operating apparatus which projects the enlarged images of objects whether opaque or not by reflection on to a screen or wall. It can be used for 

(i) teaching composition, calligraphy, structures, story,

(ii) revising lesson and

(iii) projecting maps, pictures, figures charts, pages from book, extracts, solid objects.

Its advantages are:

(i) There is no need of enlarging pictures, etc

(ii) Small pictures can be easily stored than large ones

(iii) Teaching becomes interesting.

12. Film: 

Film is an expensive but very useful aid. It appeals not only to eyes cars, but also emotions. A film is full of colour, movement and new ideas. For educational purpose, they can be used for:

(i) to teach phonetics and pronunciation,

(ii) to show English stories, plays and novels,

(iii) to acquaint pupils with the life, custom and culture of different countries,

(iv) to acquaint them with wild life and

(v) to teach them through the lives of great people.

13. Television: 

Television is an expensive aid. It appeals to both ears and eyes. It has all the advantages of a radio plus the advantages of visual pictures. It is available only at some privileged schools these days. It can be used for all those purpose in English teaching for which a radio is used.

Advantages of Audio-Visual Aids :

(i) They create interest for learning in students.

(ii) They are time saving, because they explain the idea easily and precisely.

(iii) By their use, the burden of the teacher is reduced.

(iv) The teacher can improve his own English by aural aids, students.

(v) They are the sources of a variety of experiences for

(vi) They are bases of Direct Method.

(vii) English is a difficult language. Audio-visual aids make learning English easy.

(viii) A good English teaching is possible only in a English environment. Audio-visual aids help in creating that type of environment

Limitations of Audio-Visual Aids 

(i) Some aids such as television are costly and cannot be afforded by many schools.

(ii) They give an impersonal effect which is not mach effective

(iii) The teachers are required to know the technical skill handle them.

(iv) Some teachers overuse them.

Some Suggestions:

(i) They should be used only where they are needed. Overuse should always be avoided.

(ii) Teachers should use the cheaper ands efficiently, if y ones cannot be procured.

(iii) When the purpose is fulfilled, they should be removal. 

(iv) They should be according to the age and harmonal development of students,

Audio Lingual Method or The Structural Approach- Meaning, Types of Structure, Procedure of teaching, Principles, Aims, Characteristics, Merits & Demrits

 Audio Lingual Method or The Structural Approach

This approach came into existence in the sixties in Tamil Nadu and was further popularized by Central Institute of English Hyderabad. This approach has found recognition in the schools of Uttar Pradesh under the guidance of the English Language teaching Institute Allahabad.

The structural approach is the result of researches made in the field of teaching English as a foreign language. The American linguists supported this method. They regarded English as a living and evolving thing and not merely as a form of expression. It is also known as "Aural Oral Approach", "Aural Linguistic Approach" and "Structural Approach"

The Aural-Oral Approach means, "teaching a language by giving opportunities to the students to hear and speak the language." 

"Structural approach is a scientific study of the fundamental structures of the English language, their analysis and logical arrangement."-Brewington 

Menon and Patel has defined it as "the structural approach is based on the belief that in the learning of a foreign language, mastery of structures is more important than the acquisition of vocabulary."

The Structural Approach is based on the belief that in the learning of a foreign language, mastery of structure is more important than the acquisition of vocabulary. It is believed that learning through listening and speaking is much suitable to the students. 

Structures are the baste language patterns (there are about 275 of language patterns which constitute the core). Every structure embodies an important grammatical point. Structures are graded in a manner that each structure follows naturally from the one immediately preceding. Drills form an important part of the structural approach.

Types of Structures 

Structures are tools of a language. They should not be confused with sentences Structures had not to have any grammatical background, whereas sentences are grammatical order of words Structures can be divided into following four categories

1. Sentence Patterns: A sentence pattern is a model for sentence, which will be of the same shape and construction although made up of different words. eg. He reads a story. Shut the window. Stand up.

2. Phrase Patterns: Phrase pattern is a group of words which has meaning even without being a sentence. This structure also follows order of words and this order cannot be changed, e.g., on the table, for six years, the old woman.

3. Formulas: Groups of words used regularly on certain occasions are called formulas eg.. Good morning, Excuse me. Thank you.

4. Idiomatic Structures: Groups of words that must be learnt as a whole because it is not always possible to understand the meaning from the knowledge of the separate words are known as idiomatic structures, e.g., inspite of in order to, live form hand to mouth.

Selection of Structures 

Those structures should be selected which have the following characteristics:

1. Usefulness: Usefulness of a structure depends on how frequently it occurs in spoken and written form and how far it provides for the further building up of the language

2. Simplicity: The simplicity of a structure depends on its form and meaning. 

3. Teachability: It is easy to teach structures that are easily demonstrated in a realistic situation rather than those structures, which are abstract and cannot be demonstrated. 

4. Surrender Value: When one structure leads to another, it is said to chair This way one item can be correlated with the other. have a surrender value. For example, this is a chair and this is the leg of the

5. Structures should be up to the level of the learner's age

6. They should be upto the level of the learner's capacity to learn. 

Procedure of Teaching

In this approach, every structure is taught separately Steps can be as under :

(i) First of all, presentation of item is made in appropriate situations by the teacher.

(ii) Practising of oral drill by the student of these situations.

(iii) Presentation of the item in some new situations.

(iv) Oral drill by the students of situations which were created in the third step.

(v) Overall Drill.

Principles of Structural Approach

According to F.L. French the three principles of structural approach are :

(i) Importance of the child's activity rather than the activity of the teacher.

(ii) Importance of speech for firmly fixing word as speech is the basis of acquiring other skills like reading and writing.

(iii) Importance of language habit formation because it helps to arrange words in suitable English sentence pattern in order to replace the sentence pattern of the child's mother tongue.

Besides this some other principles should be followed : 

(i) Mastery of structures,

(ii) Meaningful situation, 

(iii)Use of text books, and

(iv) Method and situation of teaching.

Aims of Structural Approach 

Aims of Structural Approach are as follows:

(i) To lay the foundation of English through drill and repetition of about 275 graded structures.

(ii) To enable the children to attain mastery over an essential vocabulary of about 3000 root words for active use. 

(iii) To correlate the teaching of grammar and composition with the reading lessons.

(iv) To teach the four fundamental skills namely understanding, speaking, reading and writing.

Characteristics of Structural Approach 

Characteristics of Structural Approach are as follows

(1) It is very important in forming language habits.

(ii) It is important for the speaking point of view. Structures are presented orally and the students practice them through a number of oral drills, then reading and writing skills are introduced.

(iii) Practice of structural approach makes pupils active.

(iv) The approach involves selection and grading of structures to be taught, the difficult and complex structures are taken up at a later stage

(v) It is a multi-skill approach. It aims at achieving the four fold linguistic aims of teaching English.

Merits of Structural Approach

Main merits of structural approach are as follows:

(i) It facilitates the learning of English by imparting the knowledge of its structures.

(ii) It creates appropriate environment for learning the language.

(iii) Due to much oral drilling, whatever is learnt in the class, remains stable in their mind.

(iv) It develops and improves speech habits of students.

(v) This is an interesting method of teaching English because teaching aids are used which motivate the students and they learn English easily.

(vi) This method enables to make proper selection and gradation of the learning material.

(vii) It encourages students for free exposition or expression of thoughts.

(viii) The four pillars of language learning-listening, reading, writing and speaking are accomplished by this method.

(ix) This approach is useful in teaching of prose and poetry.

(x) It is based on scientific principle. The work of the teacher is systematic which amounts to 'economy of efforts'.

Demerits/Limitations

Limitations of this methods are as follows

(i) This approach is more suitable for lower classes because at higher level, the students feel bored by repetition of drills. 

(ii)This approach is material-centered, while the modern concept of education gives emphasis on child-centered education and activities. 

(iii) Selection and gradation of structure do not help to eradicate the problems of English.

(iv) This approach is not suitable for teaching text books prescribed in curriculum.

(v) This method minimizes language learning because entire language can not be learnt by mutation and repetition.

(vi) This method is not suitable for teaching prose, poetry, grammar and pronunciation.

(vii) It tends to overlook the linguistic habits already formed while learning the mother tongue.

(viii) Only well-graded and well-selected structure pattern can be taught through this approach.