Administration and Educational Administration (प्रशासन एवं शैक्षिक प्रशासन)

प्रशासन एवं शैक्षिक प्रशासन 

Administration and Educational Administration 

अवधारणा (concept)

"शैक्षिक प्रबन्ध एक ऐसी सेवा करने वाली गतिविधि है, जिसके माध्यम से शैक्षिक प्रक्रिया के लक्ष्य प्रभावकारी ढंग से प्राप्त किए जा सकते हैं।"(Educational Management is a Service activity through with the objective of educational process effectively realised.)

प्रशासन से अभिप्राय (Meaning of Administration)

'प्रशासन' मूल रूप में संस्कृत का शब्द है। यह 'प्र'  उपसर्ग शास् धातु से आप बना है। इसका अर्थ है प्रकृष्ट या उत्कृष्ट रीति से शासन करना। आजकल शासन का अभिप्राय 'सरकार' से समझा जाता है, किन्तु इसका वास्तविक पुराना अर्थ निर्दश  देना, पथ-प्रदर्शन करना, आदेश या आज्ञा देना है। वैदिक युग में प्रशासन का प्रयोग इसी अर्थ में होता था। उस समय सोमादि यज्ञों में मुख्य पुरोहित अन्य सहायक पुरोहितों को यक्ष को सामग्री तथा अन्य कार्यों के बारे में आवश्यक निर्देश एवं आदेश देने का कार्य किया करते थे, उसे प्रशास्ता कहा जाता था। बाद में यह शासन कार्य में निर्देश देने वाले संचालक और राजा के लिए प्रयुक्त होने लगा।

'प्रशासन' की भाँति इसके लिए अंग्रेजी में 'एडमिनिस्ट्रेशन' (Administration) शब्द का प्रयोग किया जाता है। यह मूलतः 'एड' (Ad) उपसर्गपूर्वक सेवा करने का अर्थ देने वाली लेटिन की धातु 'Ministrere' से बना है। इसका मूल अभिप्राय एक व्यक्ति के द्वारा दूसरे व्यक्ति के हित की दृष्टि से उसको सेवा का कोई कार्य करना है, जैसे पादरी द्वारा किसी व्यक्ति को धार्मिक लाभ पहुंचाने के लिए धार्मिक संस्कार करना, न्यायाधीश द्वारा न्याय करना, डॉक्टर द्वारा बीमार को दवाई देना।  शब्दकोष के अनुसार 'प्रशासन' शब्द का अर्थ है 'कार्यों का प्रबन्ध करना अथवा लोगों की देखभाल करना।' एनसाइक्लोपीडिया ब्रिटानिका में प्रशासन शब्द की व्याख्या इस प्रकार की गयी है कि "यह कार्यों के प्रबन्ध अथवा उनको पूर्ण करने की एक क्रिया है।"

प्रशासन' का अर्थ प्रकृष्ट रीति से शासित अथवा अनुशासित करता है। इसका यह अभिप्राय है कि इस क्रिया में अनेक व्यक्तियों को विशिष्ट अनुशासन में रखते हुए उनसे एक निश्चित उद्देश्य की पूर्ति के लिए कार्य कराया जाता है। इससे यह स्पष्ट हो जाता है कि प्रशासन एक से अधिक व्यक्तियों द्वारा विशेष उद्देश्य की पूर्ति के लिए सहयोगी ढंग से किया जाने वाला कार्य है। प्रशासन के लिए अनेक व्यक्तियों का सहयोग, संगठन और सामाजिक हित का उद्देश्य अवश्य होना चाहिए।

साइमन के अनुसार, "अपने व्यापक रूप से प्रशासन की व्याख्या उन समस्त सामूहिक क्रियाओं से की जा सकती है जो सामान्य लक्ष्य की प्राप्ति के लिए सहयोगात्मक रूप में प्रस्तुत की जाती है।"

मार्क्स के अनुसार, “प्रशासन चैतन्य उद्देश्य की प्राप्ति के लिए निश्चयात्मक क्रिया है। यह उन वस्तुओं के एक संगठित प्रयत्न तथा साधनों का निश्चित प्रयोग है जिसको कि हम कार्यान्वित करवाना चाहते हैं।"

ब्रिटेनिका ऐनसाइक्लोपीडिया (Britainica Encyclopedia) के अनुसार- "Administration = Ad+ Minister अर्थात् कार्यों का निष्पादन एवं प्रबंधन करना।"

सी०वी० गुड (C.V. Good) के शब्दों में- “प्रशासन का तात्पर्य उन सभी तकनीकों एवं प्रक्रियाओंसे है जो निर्धारित नीतियों के अनुरूप किसी वैज्ञानिक संगठन के संचालन में प्रयुक्त की जाती हैं।"

रायबर्न (Rayburn) के अनुसार — “प्रशासन केवल व्यवस्थाओं, समय-तालिकाओं, कार्य-योजना, भवन का प्रकार, अभिलेखों आदि से सम्बन्धित नहीं है, बल्कि यह हमारे कार्य करने के दृष्टिकोण और बच्चों (जिनके साथ हम कार्य करते हैं) से सम्बन्धित है "

निगरों के अनुसार- "प्रशासन लक्ष्य की प्राप्ति के लिए मनुष्य तथा सामग्री दोनों का संगठन है।"

व्हाइट के अनुसार, "प्रशासन किसी विशिष्ट उद्देश्य अथवा लक्ष्य की प्राप्ति के लिए बहुत से व्यक्तियों के सम्बन्ध में निर्देश, नियन्त्रण तथा समन्वयीकरण की कला है। "

 लुथर गुलिक के अनुसार, "प्रशासन का सम्बन्ध कार्यों को सम्पन्न कराने से है जिससे कि निर्धारित लक्ष्य पूरा हो सके।"

शैक्षिक प्रशासन का अर्थ एवं परिभाषा

(Meaning and Definition of Education Administration)

शैक्षिक प्रशासन का अर्थ- शैक्षिक (विद्यालय) प्रशासन एक मानवीय प्रक्रिया है। शिक्षा का समुचित प्रबन्ध करना ही विद्यालय प्रशासन या शैक्षिक प्रशासन कहलाता है।

शिक्षा प्रशासन का अभिप्राय शिक्षा के प्रशासन से ही है। आधुनिक युग में शिक्षा का क्षेत्र अत्यन्त व्यापक हो गया है। शिक्षा पर सम्पूर्ण राष्ट्र के विकास का उत्तरदायित्व है। शिक्षा एक गतिशील प्रक्रिया है और इसका सम्बन्ध मानव विकास के लिए किये जाने वाले मानवीय प्रयासों से होता है। अतः शिक्षा का प्रसार तथा उससे मिलने वाला लाभ शिक्षा प्रशासन के अभिकरणों को कुशलता तथा गतिशीलता पर निर्भर करता है। विश्व में प्रजातांत्रिक तथा एकतान्त्रिक शासन प्रचलित है। जैसी इन शासनों की प्रकृति है, वैसे ही शैक्षिक प्रशासन की प्रकृति भी होती है। शिक्षा के समस्त पक्ष ऐसे ही मूल आधारों से प्रभावित होते हैं। शैक्षिक प्रशासन को आज केवल शिक्षा की व्यवस्था करना ही नहीं समझा जाता अपितु शिक्षा के सम्बन्ध में योजना बनाना, संगठन पर ध्यान देना, निर्देशन तथा पर्यवेक्षण आदि अनेक कार्यों से गहरा सम्बन्ध है। वास्तव में शैक्षिक प्रशासन का मुख्य उद्देश्य शिक्षा के उद्देश्यों की प्राप्ति करना है।

शैक्षिक प्रशासन के अन्तर्गत विद्यालय के विधिवत संचालन के थे सभी कार्य समाविष्ट होते हैं जिनमें प्रबन्ध, नियन्त्रण, व्यवस्था, पर्यवेक्षण एवं निर्देशन आदि आते हैं। इसमें योजना बनाना, प्रशासकीय कार्यवाही को निश्चित करना, सम्बन्धित कार्यकर्त्ताओं तथा विद्यार्थियों को आवश्यक सुविधाएँ एवं प्रोत्साहित उपलब्ध कराना, आवश्यक अभिलेख रखना, विद्यार्थी स्वशासन का संचालन करना, योग्यता के अनुसार कार्य का विभाजन करना, उनके कार्य आदि का समायोजन करना, विद्यालय और समाज के मध्य सहयोगपूर्ण सम्बन्ध स्थापित करना आदि प्रवृत्तियों का समावेश होता है। अतः विद्यालय प्रशासन को निम्न प्रकार से परिभाषित किया जा सकता है-

"शैक्षिक प्रशासन यह प्रक्रिया है जिसके द्वारा शैक्षिक कार्य में लगे कार्यकत्ताओं के प्रयासों में समन्वय एवं सामंजस्य स्थापित किया जाता है। उपयुक्त साज-सज्जा का इस प्रकार उपयोग किया जाता है कि जिससे मानवोचित गुणों का प्रभावशाली ढंग से विकास हो सके, ताकि वे राष्ट्र की आकांक्षा एवं आशा के योग्य बन सकें।"

 शैक्षिक प्रशासन की या शिक्षा प्रशासन की परिभाषाएँ-

पाल आर मोर्ट- "शिक्षा प्रशासन वह प्रभाव है, जो वांछित लक्ष्यों के सन्दर्भ में छात्रों को प्रभावित करता है, इसमें वह अन्य मानव समुदाय का उपयोग करता है, और शिक्षक इस कार्य में अभिकर्ता होता है। तीसरे समूह यानि जनता के लिये वह विभिन्न लक्ष्यों की पूर्ति हेतु कार्य करता है।"

केन्डल के शब्दो मे -"मूल रूप से शैक्षिक प्रशासन का उद्देश्य यही है तथा छात्रों को ऐसी परिस्थिति में एक साथ लाया जाए जिससे अधिकतम रूप से सफलतापूर्वक शिक्षा के उद्देश्यों को प्राप्त किया जा सके।"

एडम्स बुक के अनुसार, " प्रशासन वह क्षमता है जो अनेक प्रकार की संघर्षमयो सामाजिक शक्ति को एक संगठन में इस प्रकार सुन्दर ढंग से व्यवस्थित करता है जिससे वह एक सम्पूर्ण इकाई के रूप में क्रियाशील हो।"

ग्रेशम कैकूर के शब्दों में, "शिक्षा प्रशासन वह राजनीति सत्ता है जब दीर्घकालीन नीतियों तथा लक्ष्यों को निर्धारित कर दिये गये नीति नियमों के अनुकूल प्रशासन के मार्गदर्शन में दिन-प्रतिदिन लक्ष्य प्राप्ति हेतु समस्या को हल किया जाता है।"

ग्राहम वालफोर के अनुसार, "शिक्षा प्रशासन सही छात्रों को, सही शिक्षा, सही शिक्षकों से प्राप्त करने योग्य बनाता है। यह कार्य वह राज्य के साधनों की क्षमता के अनुसार करता है और छात्र इसका लाभ अपने प्रशिक्षण के दौरान उठाता है।"

जे. बी. सीयर्स के मतानुसार, "शिक्षा में प्रशासन शब्द सरकार से सम्बन्धित है। इससे सम्बन्धित शब्द अधीक्षक, पर्यवेक्षण, नियोजन, अनावधान, दिशा संगठन, नियन्त्रण, मार्गदर्शन एवं नियमन है।"

इन सभी परिभाषाओं से यह तो स्पष्ट हो जाता है कि शिक्षा प्रशासन, शिक्षा संस्थाओं के कुशल संचालन का तंत्र है। इस तंत्र में नीति नियमों के अनुपालन द्वारा वांछित लक्ष्य प्राप्त किये जाते हैं। उक्त परिभाषाओं का निष्कर्ष इस प्रकार प्रस्तुत किया जा सकता है-

(1) शिक्षा से सम्बन्धित सभी क्रियाओं एवं साधनों के सम्पूर्ण उपयोग, संगठन आदेश, जन सहयोग के द्वारा वांछित लक्ष्य प्राप्त करने में शिक्षा प्रशासन सहयोग देता है।

(2) शिक्षा विकास के पथ पर ले जाती है।

(3) शिक्षा प्रशासन, शिक्षा सम्बन्धी सभी प्रयासों एवं संस्थाओं को संगठित करने का प्रयास है। 

(4) शिक्षा प्रशासन का सम्बन्ध विभिन्न व्यक्तियों, शिक्षकों छात्रों, अभिभावकों, जनता के प्रयासों को समन्वित करने से है।

(5) शिक्षा के उद्देश्यों को प्राप्त करने में शिक्षा प्रशासन सहायक है।

शैक्षिक प्रशासन के लक्ष्य या उद्देश्य

(Aim of Education or Administration) 

उद्देश्य या लक्ष्य के विषय में लिखते हुए जॉन डीवी ने कहा है, कि "उद्देश्य के अन्तर्गत व्यवस्थापूर्ण गतिशीलता होती है, जिसे क्रिया द्वारा प्राप्त किया जाता है। इसके लिये हम क्रियाशील होते हैं।"

 इस सम्बन्ध एनसर्ट ने कहा है, "उद्देश्य वह बिन्दु है, जिसकी दिशा में कार्य किया जाता है। लक्ष्य या उद्देश्य को क्रिया द्वारा प्राप्त व्यवस्थित परिवर्तन भी कहते हैं।"

 इस दृष्टि से उद्देश्यों को रचना इसलिये की जाती है- 

(1) कार्य के दिशा निर्धारण हेतु, 

(2) कार्य में निश्चितता तथा सार्थकता हेतु, 

(3) समयबद्धता हेतु, 

(4) संभाव्य कठिनाइयों के निवारण हेतु, 

(5) वांछित परिणाम हेतु ।

 शैक्षिक प्रशासन का मुख्य लक्ष्य उन उद्देश्यों का निर्माण एवं प्राप्ति के प्रयास करना है, जो अच्छे नागरिक होने के लिये आवश्यक है। प्रशासन के उद्देश्यों का निर्धारण किसी प्रयोजन के लिये किया जाता है।

(1) बच्चों के सर्वागीण विकास के लिए उचित वातावरण तैयार करना—शैक्षिक प्रशासन शिक्षा सम्बन्धी कार्यों को सम्पन्न कराता है। शिक्षा के क्षेत्र में कार्यरत व्यक्तियों की सहायता करता है। इन सब के साथ-साथ शैक्षिक प्रशासन बच्चों के लिए ऐसा वातावरण तैयार करता है, जिसमें बालक का सम्पूर्ण विकास सम्भव हो सके। इस सन्दर्भ में कॅण्डल (Kandal) महोदय का मत है- "मूलतः शैक्षिक प्रशासन का उद्देश्य यह है कि अध्यापकों तथा छात्रों को ऐसी परिस्थितियों में एक-साथ लाया जाए जिससे की शिक्षा के उद्देश्य अधिक सफलतापूर्वक प्राप्त हो सकें।" "Fundamentally the purpose of educational administration is to bring pupils and teachers under such conditions as will more successfully promote the end of education."इस प्रकार आवश्यक साधन और सामग्री एकत्र करके उचित वातावरण बनाना शैक्षिक प्रशासन का प्रमुख उद्देश्य है।

(2) शैक्षिक प्रशासन का उद्देश्य है कि शिक्षा के क्षेत्र में कार्यरत व्यक्तियों को उनके उत्तरदायित्व का ज्ञान कराया जाए, बालक के व्यक्तित्व का विकास किया जाए और प्रत्येक व्यक्ति को उसकी क्षमता के अनुरूप कार्य करने के अवसर उपलब्ध कराए जाएं। इस दृष्टि से शैक्षिक प्रशासन प्रत्येक स्तर पर शैक्षिक कार्यक्रम, क्रियाकलाप और अन्य गतिविधियों का सुचारु रूप से संचालन करता है और कर्मचारियों की नियुक्ति, सेवा शर्ते तथा उनके प्रशिक्षण का निर्धारण करता है ताकि शिक्षा की सही दिशा में प्रगति हो सके। सही शिक्षा के सन्दर्भ में ग्राहम बैलफोर महोदय (Sir Graham Balfour) का मत है- "शैक्षिक प्रशासन का उद्देश्य सही बालकों को सही शिक्षकों द्वारा राज्य के सीमित साधनों के अन्तर्गत उपलब्ध व्यय से सही शिक्षा ले।

(3) शिक्षा को उत्पादन का साधन बनाना- शैक्षिक प्रशासन शिक्षा को उत्पादन का साधन बनाने में सहायता करता है। फलस्वरूप किसी संस्था के छात्रों की  संख्या में  वृद्धि होती है।

(4) शिक्षा को सुनिश्चित योजना और सुनियोजित रूप प्रदान करना—शैक्षिक प्रशासन शिक्षा को सुनियोजित रूप प्रदान करने में सहायता करता है। यह सुनिश्चित योजना का निर्माण करता है ताकि शिक्षा समाज के अनुरूप संचालित हो सके और राज्य एवं सरकार की शिक्षा नीतियों का क्रियान्वयन सही रूप में हो सके। सुनियोजन के सन्दर्भ में आर्थर वी० मोहिल्मन (Arthur B. Mohilman) का कथन है— "शिक्षा का कार्य निश्चित संगठन अथवा सुनिश्चित योजना, विधियों, व्यक्तियों तथा आर्थिक साधनों के माध्यम से चलना चाहिए।" "Education must function through a definite organization or structure of plans,procedures, personnel, material, plant and finance. "

(5) शिक्षा की आवश्यकताओं के अनुरूप निर्णय लेना एवं शिक्षा सम्बन्धी नीतियों का निर्धारण तथा क्रियान्वयन करना— शैक्षिक प्रशासन का उद्देश्य है कि  महोदय सीयर्स ( B. Seares) का कथन है- "प्रत्येक प्रशासनिक निर्णय तथा प्रत्येक कार्य शैक्षिक आवश्यकताओं के अनुरूप लेना अत्यन्त आवश्यक है।""

(6) प्रजातान्त्रिक दृष्टिकोण विकसित करना—शैक्षिक प्रशासन का उद्देश्य छात्रों एवं कर्मचारियों क में श्रेष्ठ नागरिकता, धर्म-निरपेक्षता एवं समानता की भावना का विकास करना है। यह भावना प्रजातान्त्रिक दृष्टिकोण का विकास करती है तथा शिक्षण संस्थाओं के व्यक्तियों में पारम्परिक सहयोग और स्वशासन क प्रशिक्षण प्रदान करती है। शिक्षा के नवीन उद्देश्यों, मूल्यों, मान्यताओं, सिद्धान्तों आदि के साथ सामंजस्य स्थापित की करती है। इस प्रकार यह दृष्टिकोण शिक्षा सम्बन्धी नवीन उत्तरदायित्वों को स्वीकार करना तथा उनका उचित निर्वाह करने के लिए तैयार करता है ताकि जनतन्त्रीय व्यवस्था सफल हो सके। प्रजातन्त्र के सन्दर्भ में के०जी० सैयदेन महोदय का मत है— आज के युग में विद्यालय को प्रजातन्त्र के सिद्धान्तों के अनुसार चलाया जाना चाहिए। यदि यह सिद्धान्त ही ओझल हो गया तो प्रशासन तथा निरीक्षण का महत्त्व ही समाप्त हो जाता है।"

(7) छात्रों की रुचियों एवं अभिवृत्तियों में परिवर्तन लाना - शैक्षिक प्रशासन का कार्य केवल समय प विभाग चक्र बनाना ही नहीं है अपितु छात्रों की अभिवृत्तियों में परिवर्तन लाना भी है। इस सन्दर्भ में पी०सी० रेन (P. C. Ren) महोदय का कथन है- "शैक्षिक प्रशासन का उद्देश्य छात्रों के लाभ हेतु विद्यालय बनाने, उनकी अन्तर्निहित है क्षमताओं को प्रशिक्षित करने, उनका मानसिक विकास एवं दृष्टिकोण व्यापक बनाना है। यह छात्रों को स्वयं के प्रति है समुदाय और राज्य के प्रति कर्तव्यपरायण बनाता है और वारित्रिक विकास कर स्वास्थ्य एवं शक्ति प्रदान करता है।"

Pavlov's Classical or Respondent Conditioning Theory (S-R Theories without Reinforcement)

 Pavlov's Classical or Respondent Conditioning Theory (S-R Theories without Reinforcement)

The theory of classical conditioning was developed by a Russian physiologist named Ivan P. Pavlov in the year 1904. It is defined as a process in which a neutral stimulus, by pairing with a natural stimulus, acquires all the characteristics of natural stimulus. It is called substitution learning because we substitute a neutral stimulus in place of a natural stimulus. This is also called as respondent conditioning because the subject has noting to do himself and becomes conditioned and does the things. To understand the nature of the process of conditioning, the experiments performed by Pavlov is given below:

Experiment

Pavlov kept a dog hungry for a few days and then placed it in a sound proof room which was fitted with certain mechanically controlled devices. The observer himself remained hidden from the dog but was able to view the experiment by means of a set of mirrors. Arrangement was made to give food to the dog through an automatic mechanism. But everytime before giving food a bell was rung. When the food was given and the bell was rung it was marked that there was a automatic secretion of saliva from the mouth of the dog This activity was repeated several times. After several trials the dog was given no food but the bell was rung. It was found that even the absence of food (the natural stimulus) the ringing of the bell (an artificial stimulus) caused the dog to secrete the saliva (natural response).

The above experiment thus, brings to light four essential elements of the conditioning process, i.e., unconditioned stimulus (US. natural stimulus) is food results in a natural response called the unconditioned response (UR). The conditioned stimulus (CS, artificial stimulus) elicit conditioned response (CR). It is given below.

1. UCS                     -                 UCR

   (Food)                                    (Saliva)

2. CS+ UCS             -                 UCR(Bell+ Food)                             (Saliva)

3. CS                        -                 CR   

 (Bell)                                 (Saliva)

Principles of Conditioning

1. Reinforcement: The salivary response to the bell was strengthened as a r

esult of the food being repeatedly presented just after the bell rang.

2. Extinction: If the bell was rung too many times without the food to reinforce, the response could have disappeared.

3. Generalisation: The dog tended to respond to any sound roughly similar to the ringing of the bell.

4. Discrimination: To teach the dog to distinguish the right sound and other sounds, selective reinforcement was used, that is, the dog was given food only after the sound of the bell, but never any other sound.

Educational Implications

(i) The formation of positive attitudes, fears, love. prejudices or hatred towards an object. phenomenon or event can be developed through conditioning. Thus classical conditioning can be used to develop favourable or unfavourable attitude towards learning. teacher and the school.

(ii) We should associate faults with punishment so that whenever a child feels like committing faults, he/ she anticipates the punishments. Thus rewards and punishments may be given right at the time of the act and not to be delayed.

(iii) Repetition and habit formation is to be strengthed in the process of learning.

(iv) Most of our learning is associated with the process of conditioning from the beginning. Thus the teacher is to develop the good reading habits through conditioning.

(v) The process of conditioning not only helps us in learning what is desirable but also helps in eliminating, avoiding or unlearning of undesirable habits, unhealthy attitudes, phobias through deconditioning.

Learning

Learning

Introduction

Learning occupies a very important place in our life. When the child is born, his/her mind is just like a clean slate. As soon as he/she comes in contact with his/her environment, he/she starts reacting and in this process of interaction of thehelp  individual within his/her environment, the
foundation of learning are laid down. It is only with the of the learning that the child learns many things and modifies his/her behaviour. Thus, experience, direct or indirect is found to play a dominant role in moulding and shaping the behaviour of the individual from the very beginning. The changes in behaviour brought about by experience are known as learning. The following are some of the definitions of learning.

Meaning and Definition of Learning 

There are some such tasks which a man learns in his natural and social environment, such as climbing up a tree, swimming in water, speaking a particular language, etc. These activities are called learned actions by psychologists. The process of learning these activities is called learning. Psychologist Woodworth, has defined it in this form. In his words:

The process of acquiring new knowledge and new responses is the process of learning.   

                                                                                                                              -Woodworth

Crow and Crow have taken it in a little wider form. In their words:                     

Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes.                  -Crow and Crow

But most of the psychologists have defined learning as the process of behavioural change. In the words of Gates and others: 

Learning is the modification of behaviour through experience and training.

                                                                                                                 -Gates and others 

According to psychologist Charles E Skiner, man does not effect a change to his behaviour only for the sake of behavioural change, rather he also adjusts himself with the environment. He has defined learning on the basis of this fact. In his words:

Learning is a process of progressive behaviour adaptation.                    -C.E. Skiner

Hilgard has defined learning keeping these two factors before him. In his words: 

Learning is the process by which behaviour is originated or changed through practice or training.                         -Hilgard

According to Blair, Jones and Simpson, learning is neither behavioural change nor adjustment with the environment by behavioural change. According to them, learning should enable an individual to face the circumstances in the future, beside these two. In their words:

Any change of behaviour which is a result of experience and which causes people to face later situations differently, may be called learning.                      -Blair, Jones and Simpson

Some facts about the learning process:

1. Learning means acquisition of experience.

2. Learning means acquisition, retention and modification of experience. 

3. Learning is a change of behaviour.

4. Learning depends on practice and experience. 

5. Learning is acquisition of habit, skill and knowledge.

6. Learning is a process and not a product.

7. Learning is a continuous process and continues death.

8. Learning is purposive and goal directed.

9. Learning is a creative experience. 

10. Learning is Universal.

Nature of Learning

The nature and general characteristics of learning are as follows:

1. Learning is universal

Learning is not having any boundary. It is not restricted to any particular age, sex, race or cultures. It is applicable to all the living creatures, although, the degree of learning varies from creature to creature.

2. Learning is purposeful and goal directed

Learning is not an aimless activity. It provides clues and hints to the learner that there is something behind in learning and children learn with that hope and aspiration.

3. Learning is a continuous or never-ending process

Learning starts from birth and continues till death. It is a never ending process. At each stage the learner acquires new ideas and achieves something new, which is a continuous process.

4. Learning occurs both formal and informal situations

The child learns many things. He/She acquires new habits, skills and gains new information. Many things the child learns in a formal situation like that of a school. But a great many of these the child learns in informal situation in a family or with his/her friends when he/she is travelling, playing in an incidental manner.

5. Learning is the process of solving problems

In fact, all learning is problem solving. The child learns many thing during the course of time and try to apply all these to achieve a solution for a novel situation. Learning rules and principles help him/her to produce changes in his/her behaviour and abandonment of existing behaviour.

6. Learning is adjustment

Learning is the process of adjustment. The individual must learn to adjust himself/herself to the changes that take place around him/her. It prepares an individual for any adjustment and adaptation that may be necessary.

7. Learning Involves various dimensions of psychological and mental activities

For the effective learning both psychological, e.g.. motivation, Interest and ability and physiological bases, i.e.. nervous systems, brain, spinal cord, glands, etc., are essential. Therefore in schools children must be provided opportunity to learn by doing or learn by activity for effective learning.

8. Learning is more than academic mastery of subjects

In schools we generally think that learning is concerned with subjects and acquisition of information of facts. But learning is beyond to that and we learn different traits or characteristics, attitudes, values, interests, etc., rather than only mastery on academic subjects..

9. Learning is the function of practice

There is a saying that practice makes a man perfect. In this context practice does not mean repeating a response. It is repeated efforts of an individual to react to a situation effectively. Thus, practice help to drop out awkward, unhythmic and unnecessary responses and leads to improvement in learning.

10. Learning is a Process

Through learning modification of behaviour takes place. It constantly enlarges the child's understanding, leads to growth of abilities, perception and intellect. Though the entire learning situation is a very complex process yet the favourable environment can bring desirable and satisfactory growth on the part of the individual which is the ultimate goal of the learning.

11. Difference in learning is due to environment

12. Learning is a self-directed activity

13. Learning may be correct or incorrect

14 Learning is manifold in nature

15. Learning Involves perceptual operation and motor processes

Factors Affecting Influencing/Associated with Learning

The factors which are responsible for bringing about the betterment and improvement in learning or influence or associated with learning are given below :

(a) Maturation

Development of a child takes place because of two basic but complex processes-learning and maturation. Learning is possible only when a certain stage of maturation is reached. Psychologists have suggested that learning is effective if the activities or subject matter is at a rate commensurate with the development of the child.

(b) Motivation

Motivation is the very heart of the learning process. Motivation sets the activity which results in learning or it is the art of stimulating interest in the pupil and gives the direction to learning. Thus the teacher should apply various devices in the class room to motivate the children.

(c) The Organism and Perception

All knowledge is based on some sense perception. The loss of or defects in any sense means that knowledge and learning are impoverished in proportion to the loss. Learning is dependent on the relative perfection of the senses and the general condition of the organism. If there will be organic defects (visual, auditory, focal Infections and adenoids, etc.), then learning will be affected.

(d) Intellectual Ability or Capacity

It is a fact that various species of animals have different capacities to learn. Man is known to have greater capacity to learn then other living things. We know that human beings differ in their abilities to learn. On the basis of the Terman and Merril Intellectual classification we classify them as feeble. minded, normal or in the genius class in terms of their ability to learn. 

(e) Psychological Safety

Learning is a process of interaction in which the learner actively participates in the learning situation. Thus, the learner should be provided psychological satisfaction or safe situation so that he/she can participate freely and safely in the learning process.

(f) Readiness

If a person is ready to learn, the learning process will be more active. Thus the teacher should stimulate and develop the mental readiness in the children for effective learning in addition to seating arrangement, ventilation, light facilities and excessive noise.

(g) Drawing of a Study Schedule

A schedule is often useful in setting up regular habits of study and thus enabling the learner to make maximum use of his/her time and energy. A schedule acts as a challenge, as well as a guide and monitor. Thus drawing of a study schedule makes the learner attentive and persistent in learning.

(h) Attacking the Assignment Vigorously

Learning is an active, effortful process. There is no more effective method of study than merely to read the words of a book passively, waiting for the material somehow to register itself on the "mind". If the learner attack the learning task vigorously he/she can be a successful person than the passive group.

(i) Family Background and Socio-economic Status

Research in the field of family background and socio-economic status proved that learning achievement, attitudes, values and ability of the students are different due to urban and rural environment and socio-economic conditions of the family.

(j) Effect of Age on Learning

Learning capacity varies with age. Age accompanies mental maturation. The teacher, while constructing curriculum should keep in mind the various stage of the development of the child and adopt various methods of instructional process according to the age and grade level of the students.

(k) Environment

The progress and process of learning is very much under the influence of the environment. Therefore, the teacher should see that environment of the institution is congenial and cheerful otherwise it may affect the learning process, if it is not healthy.

(l) Fatigue and Bad Working Conditions

Fatigue is the state in which the organism is exhausted and requires rest. In a state of fatigue, the output is diminished or lowered efficiency or the quality is impaired. Fatigue may be muscular, sensory or mental. This may be due to bad seating arrangement, unhealthy atmosphere, poor environment, poor light, noise and over crowdedness, etc., affects the learning capacity. Similarly, learning is hampered by bad working conditions or distraction both at home and school.

(m) Difficulty, Meaningfulness and Length of Material

It is a fact that more difficult the learning material, the poor is the learning. Therefore, experimental studies have clearly indicated that more meaningful the material, the rapid is the learning. Being meaningful means that the material conveys some sense and has some associations and previous experience with the learner. There is little learning without meaning.

Principles of Teaching English

Principles of Teaching English

"A mother tongue is caught not taught a foreign language is taught to be caught."

Mother Tongue is learnt by imitation. Mother Tongue is caught but foreign language is taught to be caught.

In India English is taught both as second language and as a foreign language. The term 'second language' is used because it has become a lingua franca between speakers of widely diverse languages. By English as a "foreign language' is meant that English is taught as a school-subject or on an adult level solely for giving students a foreign language competence. For both, it is essential for English teacher to teach in such a manner that desired goals can be achieved.

There are different approaches for the teaching and learning process of language such a psychological, linguistic and pedagogical principles. These principles of learning a language are based upon keen observation and research and experimentation. These principles are very helpful for the English teachers to raise the standard of English language. Foreign language teachers must keep in mind the following principles to achieve effectiveness in their teaching

1. Principles of Motivation, Interest and Variety

Motivation is the core of learning. It is a psychological process. Motivation, interest and variety are interrelated terms. There is no learning without interest and there is no interest without motivation and there is no motivation without varieties of different physical and mental activities A student can himself learn the language if he is motivated by the teacher to learn the language. If a child is to learn, he must be motivated, There may be two types of motivation

(i) Internal Motivation, (ii) External Motivation.

The internal motivation is related to the internal nature of the individual emotions. Child's own ambitions and desires motivate him. But sometimes, the learner is not internally motivated, there would be the need of extrinsic or external motivation for the learner to achieve the particular objectives of English teaching. External motivation is developed and created by the English teacher in the learner.

The purpose of motivation is to create a zeal to learn something new in language.  Motivation involves need, desire and interest to react. When desire to earn money and desire to learn language bring the response and reaction in individual, motivation takes place. The process goes like this: Internal desire to express ideas → motivation to learn language → learning the mother-tongue. 

2. The Principal of Naturalness

Man has a natural tendency to learn language for self-expression, for communication and, for information. The mother tongue is always learnt easily because there is a natural environment for learning mother tongue. The mother-tongue is spoken in the environment created by family and neighbourhood. From the very beginning the child listens to his parents, brothers, sisters, friends talking in that language. He rises with that language and sleeps with that language. In this way, a natural environment for mother-tongue learning is created around him. He later enlarges his sphere of activity, consequently enlarging the scope and depth of his language. But this is not true with foreign language. The child encounters this language all of a sudden in one of his classes and only for four or six period in a week. Therefore, it becomes difficult for him to learn the language. 

3. The Principle of Exposure 

When the child is provided a conductive and proper environment require for speaking the language when he is exposed to the environment where his mother tongue is spoken and written, he the mother. tongue more rapidly. He finds language exposure at home, school and society. The habits of listening, speaking, reading and writing all the constant practice and exposure which is possible only in a conductive language environment. The mother tongue is spoken in the language environment created by the family, school, neighbourhood and society. In the beginning, the child learns his language from his mother, father, brother, sisters and friends of his age. 

4. The Principle of Habit-Formation

Language learning is a skill which need constant practice and usage language is the instrument of all subjects. So it should be automatic i.e. a habit. Habit is the second nature of man which makes the speech natural

It is much easier for a child to learn his mother-tongue while at home and picks up a working vocabulary rather fast. He specially picks up those words which help him in his day-to-day life. It entails a great deal of practice on his part to understand these structures. Wherever he goes, he finds people speaking the same language, hence he sort of automatically gets into it. Even the learning of a mother-tongue is as much a habit as learning English.  Habit formation includes four types of habits:

(i) Habit of listening. 

(ii) Habit of speaking.

(iii) Habit of writing. According to Palmer, "Language learning is essentially a habit forming process, a process during which we acquire new habits."

Apart from the habits of four skills of language the following habits should be formulated in the students by our English teachers

(i) Habit of Imitating. 

(ii) Habit of Repeating.

(iii) Habit of Spelling.

(iv) Habit of correct use of language.

(v) Habit of correct pronunciation.

(vi) Habit of consulting dictionary. 

(vii) Habit of going of library.

(viii) Habit of reading of newspapers, journals, magazines and story books.

5. The Principle of Using Mother-Tongue

Mother-tongue may be helpful in teaching foreign language. As Robert Paul says in his book "Understanding English"-"When we learn first language, we face the universe directly and learn to clothe it with speech. When we learn a second language we tend to filter the universe through the language already known." Some of the linguists are not in favour of this thinking. They think that mother-tongue create a negative role in teaching a foreign language. But researches establish this fact that the role of mother-tongue facilitate the teaching foreign language. P. Gurrey points out, "The teaching of mother-tongue and teaching of foreign language can support and assist each other." 

(6) The Principles of Learning by Doing

This principle emphasises on acquiring skill by doing. For a foreign language acqui sition written work, pronunciation, reading, spelling writing, hearing P are essential activities. Students should be given a good practice of t these.

(7) The Principle of Multiple Line of Approach

According to th R. N. Safaya', "The term-multiple line implies that one is to proceed P simultaneously from many different points towards the one and the $ same end." So, the teacher should adopt many approaches judicio usly and rationally selected to reach the goal." The different appro aches which can be used are illustrated here:-

(8) The Principle of Accuracy and Correctness 

Accuracy implies to the use of right or exact words. It means that words should be used which impart meaning for contexts. For this the following are imperative :

(a) The selection of words should be right,

(b) Use of words should be economical,

(c) Expression should be impressive.

Correctness stands for accuracy of pronunciation, intonation, spelling, structures and articulation. From the very beginning, the teacher should be both accurate and correct.

(9) The Principle of Concreteness

This principle is based on the assumption that knowledge can be stored in mind permanently. if it is gained through practical experience. A child can remember lotus' more if he has seen the flower himself than when he has not. The teacher, therefore, should begin with concrete things. As P. C. Wren says, "the first words of English should be names of things and those things should be there before him as they are named...... He must say 'book', 'desk' etc. and point to the things he names." For this, the teacher can use either classroom material or should bring with him handly material. Besides nouns, others, e.g. adjectives, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, verbs, adverbs should also be taught keeping in mind this principle.

(10) The Principle of Correlation with Life

While teaching, the subject-matter should be related to life, customs, traditions, pecularities and characteristics of the particular society to which the students belong. In this way, teaching can be more meaningful and learning can be transferred to real life situations.

(11) The Principle of Language Aptitude 

Specialists of language like Carroll and Spoont are of the view that, for learning a language, language aptitude is needed. There are some main com ponents of language aptitude which should be developed in students. These components are:

(i) Phonetic Coding-ability to code sound in such a way that it can be remembered.

(ii) Grammar-ability to handle grammar.

(iii) Rote memorization. 

(iv) Inferring linguistic rules, patterns, etc.

These are the various principles of foreign language teaching. If the teacher wants his teaching to be fruitful, if he wants the rate of learning to be accelerated, he must follow these principles in teaching.

(12) The Principle of Aural-Oral Approach 

The child learns speaking his mother tongue before reading and writing it. The beginners should be taught with speech lesson in which words and small sentences are to be heard and listened. Oral practice is the quickest way of learning a language. Oral approach is based on the psychological foundations which must be applied in the beginning stage. 

The following are the advantages of oral speech :-

(i) Promotes fluency of speech

(ii) Lays the foundation of correct Pronunciation

(iii) Sentence is the Unit of Speech the language

(iv) Mastering over functional grammar

(v) Strengthens listening and speaking skills

Linguistic Principles or Characteristics of a Language or General Principles of Foreign Language Teaching, Role and Functions of a Language

Utkarsh Education

 

Linguistic Principles 

or

 Characteristics of a Language

 or

 General Principles of Foreign Language Teaching

In India English is taught both as a second language and as a foreign language. The term 'second language' is used because it has become a lingua franca between speakers of widely diverse languages. It is essential for English teacher to teach in such a manner that desired goals can be achieved. Therefore, a sound knowledge of the principles of teaching English language is needed. Since, there principles are fruitful for all foreign language teaching. They are faptly called as general principles of foreign language teaching. These principles can also determine the nature and scope of language and so they can also be studied as the characteristics of language.

1. Language is learnt.

2. Language is a system.

3. Language is a system of systems. 

4. Language is vocal and verbal.

5. Symbols of language are arbitrary.

6. Language is unique.

7. Language is a means of communication.

8. Language is related to culture or language and society,

9. Language is ever changing.

10. Language has its own grammar.

11. Language has its sentence structures.

12. Language has some specific rules.

13. Language has its own vocabulary and terminology.

14. Language involves some actions (non-verbal signs and gesture). 

Role and Functions of a Language

Language plays an important role in human life. The hard fact is that human life has been made better by the use of a language. Language is a means of expression. It helps us in the process of communication. The human life would have been quite different. Language plays some important functions which are briefly explained as follows:

1. Expressive Functions: Every person has some feelings emotions, ideas and he/she wants to give an outlet in those experiences of life. By using a language, he is able to express his views. Thus language helps in the process of expression between the two individuals. Language develops mutual under standing. This activity of expressing oneself helps a lot in balancing the proper grown and development of the personality of an individual. Just giving an outlet to our pent-up feelings, emotions, ideas and thoughts, it helps an individual in a number of ways. By expressing himself in different ways, A person can become a good orator, a good poet and a writer. The way he/she can arouse the feelings of others, benefit others also.

2. Aesthetic Function: Language is a means to store cultural experiences in the form of literature and other written records for the posterity. There cultural experiences form the nexus of individual's realisation. It breaths life into our poets and dramatists. In the absence of language, such fine arts were not possible Language has its aesthetic aspect in other way also. Sometimes we have feelings or experiences of life, but we either do not express or are unable express due to one or other reason. Later those experiences are expressed by someone else who may be author or poet and then this expression gives us a lot of satisfaction. Certainly it helps in the proper growth and development of the individual.

3. Informative Functions: Language helps to an individual in giving information to others. Suppose a person has some important information in his mind and that he wants to pass on the others. It will be possible only if he is able to express himself and inform others. Only language helps in giving the information or message.

Sometimes, the teacher in the classroom situation plays the role of information given only. He will be able to do so only with the help of a language otherwise he fails to do his duty properly. Language has, thus, an informative function.

4. Directive Function: Language also helps in giving directions to others. Through a language any type of direction to proceed or not to proceed can be given to the police standing at crossing shows 'red light' to the traffic. It is not just communication of information. He is rather directing the whole traffic to stop all movement.

In the examination hall, the superintendent uses a language and gives directions to the candidates sitting there and draws the attention of all to follow certain rules and regulations. By using a language, he is able to give directions Thus, we find, that language has directive functions also.

5. Interactive Function: Language is not the one way communication. It has both way communication. The radio and television are the media of one way communication while telephone has both ways communication. In classroom teaching, interaction between teacher and students takes place with the help of verbal and non-verbal language. The question answer method is used to that interaction may occur in the classroom. Teaching is known as interactive process that is face-to-face encounters between teacher and students.

It is an important function of language. The interactive process is the means of development. The classroom interaction helps in the students' and teachers development. The seminars, conferences and group discussions are organised for interacting in group on certain issue or problem. The exchange of views and ideas are made through interaction.

6. Communicative Function: Language is the means or medium for sending informations, ideas, feelings to others. It provides expression to our thoughts feelings needs, opinions and other abstract things. It helps to communicate them to other persons in oral or written forms. Daily newspaper communicate events and development in written forms. The radio and television Prews items also communicate the news in speech form. Some code language is also used in the communicating message during war 

7. Evolutionary Function: The advancement of a country depends on its economic, social and technological development and the evolution of the country is governed by its national language. A rich language of a country contributes directly in the national development. English, being an international language. is also known as the window to the world. Its rich and advanced literature has contributed in the evolution of English society. The evolution of man and society is related to language geographical conditions have also influenced the language significantly, such as formation of letters, pronunciation or phonemes.

8. Function of Skill development: Teaching of English language also involves the development of some skills such as-Teaching of correct pronunciation, teaching of correct spellings of words, teaching of English grammar, idioms and figures of speech, teaching of metres of English poetry, teaching of Allumous to English mythology and introduction to the English literature. Thus English language helps to improve skill development among teachers.

9. Preservative Functions: Learning language is the God given gift or boon for human beings as man also uses language for inter-action and communication. During his life time; a man gains much knowledge and experience from daily life which can be preserved only in written form. Thus, acquired knowledge and experience and formed edifies of human knowledge which is available in written language.

The introduction of media and technology also have helped in preserving the ideas, views and artistic ability in original forms. The video recording, films, display in original language, speech pronunciation, style of language. We can enjoy the songs of poet and thoughts of great scholars even after their death. Thus, the language has the most important function in preserving the knowledge, ideas, feelings, views in original forms.

Language: its Meaning, Definitions, Characteristics & Nature

Utkarsh Education

Language  

Introduction

Aristotle has called man a social animal. As such, he needs to communicate his feelings and thoughts. It is only through language that he can communicate with his fellow-beings. Thus, language is a unique possession of man. It shows his superiority over other animals. Language is the greatest gift with which man is endowed. One cannot think of human society without language. Even Bloomfield has remarked, "Each community is formed by the activity of language."

According to Gleason, "Language is one of the most important and characteristic forms of human behaviour." It is only through language that we are able to think, feel and express ourselves. Hence, language is the flesh and blood of our culture. 

Meaning and Definition of Language

The word 'language' has been derived from the Latin word 'lingua' which implies 'tongue.' French word 'langue' and 'parole' is also related to language. 'Langue' is a specific form of speech which  is conventional and belongs to a particular community. For example, in India we have languages like Punjabi, Bengali, Rajasthani etc. "Parole', also means speech but it denotes the 'individual' side of language i.e. how a person expresses his feelings, emotions and desires while living in a society. 

Educationists have given various definitions of language which are given below:

"Language is the expression of ideas by means of which speech sounds are combined into words, words are combined into sentences and combination of sentences gives answer to ideas and thoughts."   -Sweet

"Language is a set of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group communicates." -Bloch and Trager

"Language is the set of human habits, the purpose of which is to give expression to human thoughts and feelings especially to impart them to others." -Jesperson

"Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communication, ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntary produced symbols." -Edward Sapir

Characteristics of Language

1. Language is a means or vehicle ti communicate ideas, thoughts, feelings, experiences and emotions

2. Language is a verbal communication or verbal interaction of thoughts and ideas among the members of the society. 

3. Some signs, cries, language, smile and body gestures are also used for communicating something. It is known as non-verbal language o body language, or non-verbal interaction. The verbal interaction take place with the help of a verbal language.

4. Language is the God-given gift or boon for human being on other animals and species can use a language. Man alone uses language, for communication. 

5. Language is signally system which employs vocal sounds and is based on man's abilities and skill to speak.  

6. Language is speech which in turn means the production of meaningful sound according to a system. It is an introduction to the study of speech

7. Language is the system of systems which includes phonemes morphemes, semantics and syntax. 

8. Language is a powerful instrument or tool which has made human civilization and culture.

9. Language is a uniquely human trait, shared by the cultures so divers and by individuals physically and mentally so unlike one another. 

10. Language is purely human and non-instinctive method of conveying c communicating, ideas, feelings, emotions, and desires by means of system of voluntarily produced symbols or alphabets or words. 

11. Language is a social and cultural not a biologically inherited function The skills of a language are reading, writing, speaking and listening are acquired.

12. Language is a highly structured system, which permits an infinite range of permutation.

Nature of Language

The nature of language is based on certain linguistics principles which are given below :-

1. Language is a system.

2. The system of language is arbitrary. 

3. Language is a system of symbols. 

4. The symbols of language are vocal.

5. Language is learned.

6. Language is for communication.

7. Language is related to the culture in which it exists.  

8. Language is made up of habits.

9. Language is social behaviour. 

10. Language is unique.

11. language changes. 

1. Language is a system

Language is a system like that of the human body. The system of the body functions through various organs such as the heart, the lungs etc. The system of language functions through three constituents, eg, the sounds. the structures and the words. There cannot be any utterance without 

2. The system of language is arbitrary

There is no relationship between a particular symbol and the object denoted by it. For example, why do we call a particular object 'tree' or another object 'stone'? There is no relationship between the syrnol 'tree' and the object denoted by it. The same is true in the case of 'stone' or other items of vocabulary. It is a matter of convention. Once the convention is set, it is not for the individual to break it.

The same is true of question and answer forms. Why is it that "Is this a tree?" is a question, and "This is a tree," a statement. It is also a matter of convention. 

3. Language is a system of symbols

Symbols are representations of things rather than the things themselves. The word 'boy' is not a 'boy'. The stands for a 'boy'. Language functions best only when the symbols are known to the speaker and the listener, the writer and the reader.

4. The symbols of language are vocal

Language uses vocal symbols which are made up of speech sounds. These sounds are produced by human beings through various movements of the vocal organs.

5. Language is learned

Language is a learned activity. It does not come automatically, as walking does. The child is not born with the skill of speaking. He has to acquire it after he is born. If a child were to be isolated from society or brought up in the company of deaf people, he would their mother tongue. Since language is a learned activity, we have to teach it and theach it property 

6. Language is for communication

The chief purpose of language is communication. We use language to inform others, to ask them to do certain things or to express our feeling or emotions. For this purpose it is important that we acquire the rights of promociation which is intelligible to others. should, therefor pay attention to correct speech on the part of students.

7. Language is related to the culture in which it exists

A language is the product of a particular society and culture. It has meaning only in relation to that society and culture. The Eskimos, for example, have so many different wards in their language for 'snow. It is because "snow" plays an important part in their lives. But other speakers do not have that number of words for snow. In England to ask a person his salary is considered illmannered, but it is not so in India. The way of greeting, saying thanks etc. are different in different countries. It is because of cultural differences.

While learning a foreign language, a person does not only learn that langugae but he also gets acquainted with the culture of the people whose language he is learning. The culture aim of teaching a language cannot be ignored.

8. Language is made up of habits

According to Jesperson, "Language is a set of human habits, the purpose of which is to give expression to thoughts and feelings." The system of language is to be mastered at the habit level. When a person speaks his other tongue, he does not consider the position of the various speech organs while making the meaningful noises. Nor does he think of the ways in which he putting various words to form sentences. It is because speaking has become a matter of habit with him. No person can be said to have learnt a language unless he masters it at the habit level.

The implication of this principle is that the students should be provided intensive practice in the use of language. The teacher should provide opportunities to the students to use the language. 

9. Language is social behaviour

The features of language are not inherited in the biological sense, that is, heredity does not predispose a person to learn one language more easily than another. Language is social behaviour. A child picks up the language of his environment. If a child born in Tamil Nadu, is brought up in London, he will pick up English, but if he is taken away to Maseow, he will learn Russian.

10. Language is unique 

Each language is unique. No two language have the same sound, grammatical or lexical systems. All language differ in these respects. So fresh efforts have to be made to learn a language.

11. Language changes

Language is not static. A living language, like human beings changes. If we study the history of any language, we shall notice the numerous changes that have taken place in it over the years.

Changes take place in all aspects of language. This is more so in the case of vocabulary. Words come and go. They are born and die. Words are invented according to need. We have noticed that thousands of words have been added to Indian language after Independence. English too has borrowed words from various languages. Besides this, words change their meaning from time to time. The word sad once meant 'full to the brim', 'well fed'. Then it meant 'solid'. Later on, it was appled to a person who was reliable and firm. Then it got its present meaning.