🌐 Features of the English Language

一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一

1. International Language

Definition: English is the most widely spoken second language in the world and is used as a global means of communication.

Explanation: Spoken in more than 100 countries. Official or second language in international organizations like the UN, WHO, IMF. Used in aviation, diplomacy, business, and technology.

一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一

2. Rich Vocabulary

Definition: English has one of the largest vocabularies of any language.

Explanation: More than 600,000 words (as per Oxford Dictionary). Influences from Latin, French, German, and Greek. Allows for subtle expression and precise communication.

一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一

3. Flexible and Adaptable

Definition: English adapts easily to new terms and concepts.

Explanation: Frequently borrows words (e.g., “guru” from Hindi, “safari” from Swahili).

New words and slang are added every year.  Useful in evolving fields like science and technology.

一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一

4. Grammar Structure

Definition: English grammar is relatively simple in terms of inflection.

Explanation: Does not use gendered nouns like many other languages. Uses auxiliary verbs (“do,” “be,” “have”) to form questions and negatives.

一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一

5. Phonetic and Non-Phonetic Nature

Definition: English is not strictly phonetic, meaning pronunciation does not always match spelling.

Explanation: Words like “colonel” and “island” are pronounced differently from how they are spelled. This can be challenging for learners. However, consistent spelling patterns help with reading and writing.

一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一

6. Global Media and Literature

Definition: English dominates the world of books, movies, internet, and academic journals.

Explanation: 80% of the world’s electronically stored information is in English. Shakespeare, Dickens, and modern authors have enriched English literature. Widely used in pop culture and entertainment.

一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一

7. Standardized Testing and Education

Definition: English is the primary language of academic and professional testing globally.

Explanation: Tests like TOEFL, IELTS, and GRE are in English. Medium of instruction in many top universities across the world. Important for global education and employment.

一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一

8. Use of Idioms and Phrasal Verbs

Definition: English makes rich use of idiomatic expressions.

Explanation: Makes the language colorful and expressive.

Examples: "Break the ice", "Kick the bucket", "Look up to someone". Can be difficult for non-native speakers but essential for fluency.

一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一

9. Tense System

Definition: English has a detailed tense system to indicate time.

Explanation:  12 basic tenses: present, past, future (each with simple, continuous, perfect, perfect continuous). Helps in expressing nuanced time frames.

一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一

10. Cultural Diversity and Inclusiveness

Definition: English embraces expressions and vocabulary from various cultures.

Explanation: Blends with local dialects (e.g., Indian English, British English, American English). Allows cultural identity to be expressed through language.

一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一

11. Widely Used in Technology and Science

Definition: Most of the scientific and technical terms are in English.

👉 Example: “computer”, “software”, “virus”, “internet”, “robot”.

一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一

12. Common Language of Education

Definition: Many top universities (like Oxford, Harvard, IITs) use English.

👉 Most textbooks, research papers, and international exams (TOEFL, IELTS) are in English.

一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一

13. Helpful for Career Growth

Definition: English is needed for good jobs, especially in international companies.

👉 Interviews, emails, meetings, and presentations are often in English.

一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一

14. Easy to Learn and Teach

Definition: English has many learning resources — books, apps, videos, teachers.

👉 Even beginners can start learning quickly using simple tools.

一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一

15. English is Creative

Definition: English allows you to play with words, create poetry, stories, and fun expressions.

👉 Example: Idioms like “break the ice”, “piece of cake”, “once in a blue moon”.

一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一

📌 Summary

Feature	Description
International	Used globally for communication
Rich Vocabulary	Extensive word stock
Flexible	Adopts new words easily
Simple Grammar	Less inflection, SVO structure
Non-Phonetic	Spelling and pronunciation differ
Global Media	Dominates internet, literature
Academic Use	Used in global tests and education
Idioms	Makes language expressive
Tenses	Detailed time expression
Inclusiveness	Accepts cultural variations

Factors Influencing the Development of the English Language

 

📘 Factors Influencing the Development of the English Language

---

1. Historical Influences

Explanation:
The English language has evolved through several historical stages, shaped by invasions, settlements, and conquests.

• Old English (450–1100 AD): Influenced by Anglo-Saxon (Germanic tribes like Angles, Saxons, Jutes).
• Middle English (1100–1500 AD): Norman Conquest introduced many French and Latin words.
• Modern English (1500 onwards): The Renaissance, printing press, and colonization shaped vocabulary and grammar.

---

2. Colonial Expansion

Explanation:
The British Empire spread English across continents during the 16th to 20th centuries.

• English became the administrative and educational language in colonies (e.g., India, Africa, the Caribbean).
• Local words were added to English (e.g., “bungalow,” “karma,” “safari”).
• English evolved into regional varieties like Indian English, Caribbean English, and African English.

---

3. Trade and Commerce

Explanation:
Global trade helped English grow as a lingua franca (common language) for business and shipping.

• Merchants and traders needed a common language for communication.
• English was standardized in shipping, banking, and international trade.
• New commercial terms were adopted into the language.

---

4. Scientific and Technological Advancements

Explanation:
Scientific discoveries and inventions were often recorded and shared in English.

• The Industrial Revolution and modern scientific publications used English.
• English became the dominant language of research papers, patents, and journals.
• New words were coined (e.g., “internet,” “software,” “robot,” “genetics”).

---

5. Influence of Media and Pop Culture

Explanation:
Mass media, movies, music, and the internet played a major role in the global spread of English.

• Hollywood films, pop music, and TV shows are popular worldwide.
• English phrases and slang spread through digital platforms (e.g., “selfie,” “LOL,” “viral”).
• Influences from American and British culture affect pronunciation and vocabulary.

---

6. Education Systems Worldwide

Explanation:
English is often taught as a second language or medium of instruction in schools globally.

• Seen as a language of opportunity and success.
• Required in many international competitive exams (e.g., IELTS, TOEFL, GRE).
• Used in higher education, particularly in science, medicine, and technology.

---

7. Migration and Globalization

Explanation:
Global movement of people increased interaction among English speakers and non-speakers.

• Immigration to the US, UK, Canada, and Australia brought new accents and influences.
• Globalization in the 20th and 21st centuries made English essential in international communication.
• English borrowed words from other languages and adopted multicultural expressions.

---

8. Standardization through Printing and Dictionaries

Explanation:
The invention of the printing press helped unify and standardize English.

• William Caxton introduced the printing press to England in 1476.
• Standard grammar and spelling became widespread.
• Samuel Johnson’s dictionary (1755) helped formalize English vocabulary.

---

9. Internet and Digital Communication

Explanation:
The digital age made English the dominant language online.

• Most websites and social media platforms use English.
• Emergence of internet slang, emojis, abbreviations (e.g., “BRB,” “OMG,” “hashtag”).
• Blending of spoken and written language forms.

---

10. Political and Economic Power of English-speaking Nations

Explanation:
The dominance of the United States and United Kingdom in global affairs boosted the status of English.

• English used in diplomacy, international law, and military cooperation.
• Associated with economic progress, power, and modernity.
• Encouraged non-English-speaking countries to adopt it in official and commercial settings.
• Absolutely! Here are some extra points you can add to your answer to make it more complete and impressive — all in easy English

一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一

11. English is Flexible

English can easily add new words from other languages or make new ones.

👉 Example: Words like “guru” (from Hindi), “sushi” (from Japanese), and “emoji” (from Japanese) are now used in English.

一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一一

12. Different English Accents and Varieties

English is spoken in many different ways around the world.

👉 Example:

British English (UK)

American English (USA)

Indian English (India)

Australian English (Australia)

All are English, but have different words, pronunciation, and spelling.

The Origin and Development of English Language

Utkarsh Education

What is “Origin”?

Origin means the starting point or beginning of something.

So, the origin of the English language means:

👉 Where and how the English language started and how it changed over time.

 

Origin and Development of English Language

However, nothing can be said authentically about the origin of language, although there are several theories, which have been expanded in support of its origin, but these theories are based on speculation and surmises. It can be said that a language is recognized when it becomes a forceful medium of expression or communication of feelings as well as emotions. If we have a glance over the development of English language, we notice a gradual development and enrichment by the valuable contribution and impact of other languages and their literature.

English language did not occupy reputed place in antiguity rather it was neglected and looked down by the then upper class society. As a matter of fact, English was spoken by rustics and lower class of society. When Germanic and Franco Latin literature was furnished, English also became rich language and literature.

Firstly Anglo Saxon literature contributed English and secondly, the literature imparted from France by the Normans, helped in its development. Anglo Saxon literature was cultivated by the Teutonic tribes, which invaded Britain at the end of the Vth century. This literature in the outcome of the work of clerks during the period from VIIth to XIth century. In the Latin literature of the age, some renowned persons like Aldhelm (640-709), Prede (673-735), Mark of Jarrow and Aluim (735-804) wrote in Latin and composed some English views and songs in English. First creation of the erudities of language is poetry. The most pre-dominant and notable characteristics of the Germanic language, spoken by Anglo Saxon are consonants. But this is not the strict rule to use this metre, but the alteration may be formed by vowels also.

Further old English possessed the facility of forming compound words. These compound words display the original sense by their elements which form then; e.g.. geal-adi (gall disease) is jaundice. Lic-song (the corpse song) is a dirgelie tun (the town of corpses) is the cemetery etc. Then, the use of compound words was common to both poetry and prose, but independent English language and its literature has yet not come in existence. Poeta used such words for ornamen to bring emphasis or effect.

Thus, up to 9th century. English poetry or prose had no identification literature. Towards the middle of Xth century a remarkable advancement w made in English culture by the re-establishment of the Benedictive Monaster One of the pupils of this school, at Winchester Alfric cultivated more refine prose, which was more musical and poetic. So, on the whole, Anglo Saxon pro is much nearer to modern prose.

Gradually the Anglo Saxon vocabulary was being transferred by the disappearance of its poetic terms and new words went on making their place in the language. These new words were supplied by the Normans. Besides the Anglo Saxon words became modified in form and pronunciation and change resulted in the form of shortened words. Thus, Anglo Saxon became gradually modified into modern English with its simple grammar.

Thus, we can see, that the history of English language is usually described as covering three stages-Old English up to about 1150, Middle English upto about 1500 and then Modern English. The gap between modern language and the old English is now so great that old English has to be studied as if it were foreign language. 

1. Old English (Early Period of English Language) upto about 1150

The origin of English can be traced further back, beyond the dialects of the early Germanic settlers, to the West Germanic languages spoken by tribes in North-West Germany around the beginning of the Christian Era. These Wes German languages are in turn part of a wider Germanic group, which include the Scandinavian languages. All of these form a branch of the Indo-European family of languages, spoken from Northern India to the Atlantic coast of Europe. Due to kinship among all these languages Persian, Hindi, Spanish, Galtic and English alike and others lies in the many words (in different forms) that they have in common, e.g., we find words equivalent to snow, birch, wolf, honey ant beech. The only difference between Germanic languages from the other Indo European tongues is that verbs can be grouped into two classes, called 'weak and 'strong, according to the form of their past tense.

The various Anglo Saxon tribes in England has different dialects. Of these, West Saxon is the most important today. The Latin alphabet was widely all over Europe. The core of our modern English vocabulary, is of old English stock. There was difference in the grammar and inflections, the ending of words show their relationships with other words. Old English showed these relationships by of inflections that indicated grammatical classifications. Thus, old English was by no means as adjudged from the modern standards. As relationships between words were indicated by inflection, there was no crucial need for related words to be positioned next to each other. This complex use of inflections was breaking down throughout the old English period but it was so well established that the changes began to appear late in the written English. On account of Scandinavian influence on spoken English between IXth and XIth centuries. Many Scandinavian words come readily into English and contributed to the dialects of Northern and Eastern England eg.. cracked, bath, skill, husband and Thursday. 

2. Middle English Period (1150 to 1500)

English came back into general literary use in the 14th Century, by this time, the writing habits that had been ingrained in old English were quite forgotten. Writers now adopted many French conventions, using qu-in words like queen or queak, instead of the old English. The French symbols-ou- and -ow-were used to represent the /-00 sound that in old English had been written -U (hus "a house"). Changes in pronunciation were already taking place in. Later old English, continued rapidly and new spellings were adopted to represent the new sounds, e.g., old English spellings such as stan and ham (for a stone' and 'a home') now became stone and home. Besides this, French words too began to appear in English writing. Geoffrey Chaucer, a fairly representative user of Middle English, used a high proportion of French words in his poetry. He compared a long descriptive poem, "The Canterbury Tales'. In this poem he chose thirty pilgrims and drew a portrait of each one. These portraits (prologue) display his skill of human and irony and so he is known as Father of English poetry. By about 1400, the year of Chaucer's death, more than half of English vocabulary consisted of French imports. Thus, the most obvious change in middle English was the loss of old inflected endings. Chaucer's English is much more intelligible to the modern readers.

3. Modern English Period (Early Renaissance and Afterwards)

Between Old and Middle English period, grammatical and vocabulary changes were most dramatic but between Middle and Modern English, it was pronunciation changes, that marked the transition most strongly. After Chaucer's time, the Vowel sounds, particularly long Vowels underwent a process of modification and it has become known as the Great Vowel shift. English language gradually but slowly achieved its proper place during 15th and 16th centuries. English became the language of cultured society and covered for flung area on the globe. Thomas Wyatt (1503) and Surrey (1517) are the most important names who served English Literature. The literary works of Philip Sidney (1554) appeared between the years 1518 and 1582, but were published after his death. Edmund Spender felt that the purity of the language could be preserved only by reviving old words and using words from dialect. Thus, Renaissance or Elizabethan period was full of great poets, dramatists and essayists. This period is rich in all its manifestation. Shakespeare, Spencer and Bacon are the shining stars of this period. English achieved its highest position and glory during this period.

The major movement in language was the attempt to establish rules of correctness in the 17th Century, now the first time, dictionaries defining the meanings of words were published and Dr. Samuel Johnson in 1755 contributed in this field. Throughout the 19th and 20th Centuries, the debates about standards of correctness and acceptability to be debated and during the first of the 20th Century under the influence of radio, there was a strong move towards a prescribed standard.

Here's a detailed yet easy-to-understand explanation of the origin of the English language, suitable for students, projects, or essays:

🕰️ Historical Timeline of English Language Origin in short 

1. Old English (450–1150 AD)

Where it came from:

Around 450 AD, Germanic tribes (Anglo, Saxons, Jutes) came to Britain from northern Europe (now Germany and Denmark).

They brought their own languages, which slowly mixed and formed Old English.

Key Points:

Very different from modern English.

Hard to understand for us today.

Example word: “hwaet” (means “what”)

2. Middle English (1100–1500 AD)

What changed:

In 1066, Normans from France invaded England (Battle of Hastings).

They brought Norman French, which mixed with Old English.

Latin words (used by the church) also entered the language.

Key Points:

English grammar became simpler.

Many French words were added (e.g., “government”, “court”, “justice”).

Writers like Geoffrey Chaucer wrote in Middle English (e.g., The Canterbury Tales).

3. Early Modern English (1500–1700 AD)

What changed:

The Renaissance period brought many new ideas and words from Latin and Greek.

Printing press was invented (by William Caxton in 1476), which helped spread standard English.

English spelling started to become fixed.

Key Points:

Shakespeare wrote in this period.

Many new words were created (e.g., “lonely”, “majestic”, “hurry”).

Grammar and vocabulary became more like modern English.

4. Modern English (1700–Present)

What changed:

English continued to grow with words from science, technology, and global cultures.

The British Empire spread English to many parts of the world (India, Africa, Australia).

American English developed with its own accent and vocabulary.

Key Points:

English became a global language.

Vocabulary keeps growing (e.g., “internet”, “selfie”, “blog”).

English now has many accents and varieties.

🌍 Sources of English Vocabulary

Language Example Words

Latin animal, data, school

French court, beauty, prince

Germanic house, strong, child

Greek photo, biology, telephone

Hindi bungalow, guru, jungle

📝 Final Summary

> The English language started over 1,500 years ago from Germanic tribes. Over time, it changed by adding words from French, Latin, Greek, and many other languages. Today, English is a rich, global, and modern language used in almost every part of the world.

Translation-Cum-Grammar Method

Translation-Cum-Grammar Method

This method is also known as classical method. It is the oldest method and came in India with the Britishers. In this method, the words, phrases, idioms and sentences are taught with the help of examples in the mother tongue. The sentences in English and mother tongue were compared side by side. Theory of language is interpreted in detail, but there was very little practice given on the use of language. This method has no psychological base but has two philosophical bases, viz,:

1. A foreign language can be easily learnt through translation. 

2. Grammar is the soul of language.

Principles of Translation-cum-Grammar Method

Thompson and Wyatt say that this method is based on the sound principles:

1. Translation interprets foreign phraseology best.

2. In the process of interpretation, the foreign phraseology assimilated and 

3. The structure for a foreign language is best learnt when compared and contrasted with that of the mother-tongue.

Characteristics of Translation-cum-Grammar Method

Characteristics of this method are as follows:

i) The unit of teaching is word and not sentence.

(ii) Text books occupy an important place in this method. 

(iii) Mother tongue dominates or is used for explaining the meaning of English words, sentences and grammatical rules. 

(iv) Translation of paragraphs from mother tongue into English and vice versa is given to the students for practice. 

(v) Grammar is taught by deductive method, i.e., the teacher explains the rules of grammar and the students memorise it by rote method. 

(vi) Stress is laid on reading and writing.

(vii) During the process of translation and grammar method, the structures of English language can be learnt easily. This is because of linguistic materials presented for study.

Procedure

There are two kinds of translation method, i.e., (1) Translation from English into mother tongue. (2) Translation from mother tongue into English. In this method, the text book occupies an important place as it has all reading materials.

Following steps are involved in this method:

Step I. The teacher selects the passages of English in accordance with the intellectual level of the students and makes ideal reading of the passage. The he begins the lesson with the vocabulary items. The meanings of the words an explained in the mother-tongue to the learner. 

Step II. The teacher translates the passage with the help of mother tongue. 

Step III. The teacher explains the grammar items in the mother tongue. 

Step IV. The learners are asked to copy the grammar rules in their note books. This is followed by exercises based on grammatical items. The learner may also be asked to translate into foreign language sentences from the mother tongue by using grammatical items already learnt.

Step V. Finally the unfinished exercises and learning of rules are given as assignment. 

Thus, this method starts with the meaning of words and then explains the meaning of phrases and sentences.

Merits (Advantages) of this Method. 

Translation-cum-Grammar method has following merits:

(i) This method is economical at it saves time and energy of the teacher to teach a foreign language. 

(ii) It enhances students vocabulary.

(iii) This method is based on the principles of psychology as it is based in Appreciative theory'. This theory states, "Learning connect old and new ideas." 

(iv) This method gives inspiration for independent study. 

(v) It helps in better and clear understanding of words, phrases and idioms which can be translated into mother-tongue. Thus, it enables in better understanding of a foreign language.

(vi) It follows the maxim "proceed from known to unknown." As the child is already familiar with his mother tongue, he can easily comprehend in English.

(vii) It enables the students to write correct English by telling the rules of grammar first.

(viii) This method is convenient for Indian teachers because they are not required to use material aid while teaching.

(ix) It is effective method and can be used in over crowded classes.

(x) English grammar is easily learnt through comparative process. answer in mother tongue. 

 

Demerits (Limitations) of this Method. 

Some of the demerits of Translation-cum-Grammar method are as following: 

1. This method does not give emphasis on speaking, reading and writing aspects.

2. It does not teach correct articulation, intonation, and pronunciation.

3. There are some words, idioms and phrases in English, which reflect the culture, traditions and customs of English people. They cannot be translated into mother-tongue without losing the word correct effect.

4. English language has some such structures which cannot be translated into Indian languages, e. g. "the".

5. Sometimes the literal translation becomes e. g. was thinking-Mai tha soch raha. Sweet' opines, 'Only a limited number of sentences can be taught by this method."

6. It lays much emphasis on grammar, so teaching becomes monotonous.

7. This method does not establish harmony between thought and expression. 

8. This method disregards the maxim of "proceeding from whole to part method" as in this method the unit of teaching is word (put) and not the sentence (whole).

9. It neglects silent reading by the pupils.

10. This method is dull and uninteresting for the students who remain passive listeners.

 Suggestions for Improvement 

The shortcoming of this method can be lightened if the following suggestions are followed:

(1) Large clauses should be divided into small groups. 

(2) Questions should be distributed equally in the class.

(3) Teachers should speak with correct pronunciation and grammatically correct sentences. 

(4) Teachers should stress those points at which Indian vernaculars use differ from English. 

(5) Students should be asked to do much written work.

(6) Chorus work, for instance, singing poems should be done.

Maxims of English Teaching

Maxims of Teaching

Maxims of teaching are of great importance and useful to get the positive out-comes of teaching-learning process. Maxims of teachings are the formulas and general rules of Teaching drawn from experiences of teachers and educationists and psychologists. The main maxims of Teaching English are given below:

1. From Indefinite to Definite

An English teacher should provide the opportunity for a new experiences. Because, in the beginning, there exists an ambiguity, uncertainty and doubtfulness in the concepts of a child he gets the clarity in his conceptions and thoughts when he gets experiences from the society. He verifies his unmatured concepts on the testimony of experience.

2. From Whole to Part

The knowledge of a thing should not be given in part first but it should be given as a whole. The full concept of a thing should understood by the learners and then the knowledge of its parts should be given.

3. From Known to Unknown

The English teacher should proceed his teaching of English language from unknown. He should impart new knowledge of language based on the previous knowledge of the students which is known to them.

4. From Psychological to Logical

The formation of curriculum syllabus, text-books and selection and gradation of language materials teaching techniques and audio-visual-aids should be based on child psychology. The logical base of teaching language comes later on.

5. From Particular to General 

A teacher should proceed his teaching with particular examples and illustrations in the beginning and then he should give general illustration and examples in his teaching.

6. From Real to Unreal 

In teaching-learning process a teacher should use the real object in his teaching in the beginning. After that he may use the unreal of representative objects in later stage.

7. From Empirical to Rational 

First of all our beginners should be introduced with the empirical principles and direct truth. After that the rational thinking should be developed. The rational thinking is a logical thinking or reasoning based on empirical truths and principles testified by experiments.

8. From Simple to Complex 

The teacher of English language should impart the knowledge of simple matter and content first and then difficult matter should be dealt with later on.

9. From Concrete to Abstract 

The abstract thoughts are imaginative, doubtful and difficult to understand for the beginners. Therefore, the learners should be given the knowledge of concrete object because they are familiar with these concrete objects.

10. From Analysis to Synthesis 

In analysis, we divided the topic into so many parts and do the part-wise analysis of the topic of the content. In synthesis, we join the parts into the whole. In analysis, the learner understands part-wise concept in a better way. Analysis is a difficult process to understand.

11. From Inductive to Deductive

There are two teaching techniques to make the English lesson a success

(i) Inductive Technique

(ii) Deductive Technique

Both the techniques are used in the direct method of Teaching English language.

In the Inductive technique of teaching, the learners get themselves associated with the concept revealed and clarified by the English teacher giving practical examples and illustration. We proceed from examples to generalization. When a concept is developed about the knowledge through these examples. We reach to the generalization of the rule of the content.

Therefore, we proceed from examples and illustration to generalization in Inductive technique of teaching. Inductive technique of teaching very useful for the technique of beginners. They do not understand the rules. technique They understand these rules through simple and practical examples and illustrations related to their lives. So this method or approach or is the best one for our beginners to make them understand the language items in an easier way.

Deductive technique of teaching is useful for the senior classes. In Inductive technique, we try to discover new knowledge on our teaching through illustrations, examples and experiments, Whereas, in deductive method, we prove the rules and principles of a particular part of knowledge of the subject by doing experiments and giving examples and illustrations.

We proceed from generalization to examples. It means the teacher tells the generalization of the rule of the content matter first and then he proves the generalized rule by giving examples and illustrations during his teaching language.

Principles of Teaching English

Principles of Teaching English

"A mother tongue is caught not taught a foreign language is taught to be caught."

Mother Tongue is learnt by imitation. Mother Tongue is caught but foreign language is taught to be caught.

In India English is taught both as second language and as a foreign language. The term 'second language' is used because it has become a lingua franca between speakers of widely diverse languages. By English as a "foreign language' is meant that English is taught as a school-subject or on an adult level solely for giving students a foreign language competence. For both, it is essential for English teacher to teach in such a manner that desired goals can be achieved.

There are different approaches for the teaching and learning process of language such a psychological, linguistic and pedagogical principles. These principles of learning a language are based upon keen observation and research and experimentation. These principles are very helpful for the English teachers to raise the standard of English language. Foreign language teachers must keep in mind the following principles to achieve effectiveness in their teaching

1. Principles of Motivation, Interest and Variety

Motivation is the core of learning. It is a psychological process. Motivation, interest and variety are interrelated terms. There is no learning without interest and there is no interest without motivation and there is no motivation without varieties of different physical and mental activities A student can himself learn the language if he is motivated by the teacher to learn the language. If a child is to learn, he must be motivated, There may be two types of motivation

(i) Internal Motivation, (ii) External Motivation.

The internal motivation is related to the internal nature of the individual emotions. Child's own ambitions and desires motivate him. But sometimes, the learner is not internally motivated, there would be the need of extrinsic or external motivation for the learner to achieve the particular objectives of English teaching. External motivation is developed and created by the English teacher in the learner.

The purpose of motivation is to create a zeal to learn something new in language.  Motivation involves need, desire and interest to react. When desire to earn money and desire to learn language bring the response and reaction in individual, motivation takes place. The process goes like this: Internal desire to express ideas → motivation to learn language → learning the mother-tongue. 

2. The Principal of Naturalness

Man has a natural tendency to learn language for self-expression, for communication and, for information. The mother tongue is always learnt easily because there is a natural environment for learning mother tongue. The mother-tongue is spoken in the environment created by family and neighbourhood. From the very beginning the child listens to his parents, brothers, sisters, friends talking in that language. He rises with that language and sleeps with that language. In this way, a natural environment for mother-tongue learning is created around him. He later enlarges his sphere of activity, consequently enlarging the scope and depth of his language. But this is not true with foreign language. The child encounters this language all of a sudden in one of his classes and only for four or six period in a week. Therefore, it becomes difficult for him to learn the language. 

3. The Principle of Exposure 

When the child is provided a conductive and proper environment require for speaking the language when he is exposed to the environment where his mother tongue is spoken and written, he the mother. tongue more rapidly. He finds language exposure at home, school and society. The habits of listening, speaking, reading and writing all the constant practice and exposure which is possible only in a conductive language environment. The mother tongue is spoken in the language environment created by the family, school, neighbourhood and society. In the beginning, the child learns his language from his mother, father, brother, sisters and friends of his age. 

4. The Principle of Habit-Formation

Language learning is a skill which need constant practice and usage language is the instrument of all subjects. So it should be automatic i.e. a habit. Habit is the second nature of man which makes the speech natural

It is much easier for a child to learn his mother-tongue while at home and picks up a working vocabulary rather fast. He specially picks up those words which help him in his day-to-day life. It entails a great deal of practice on his part to understand these structures. Wherever he goes, he finds people speaking the same language, hence he sort of automatically gets into it. Even the learning of a mother-tongue is as much a habit as learning English.  Habit formation includes four types of habits:

(i) Habit of listening. 

(ii) Habit of speaking.

(iii) Habit of writing. According to Palmer, "Language learning is essentially a habit forming process, a process during which we acquire new habits."

Apart from the habits of four skills of language the following habits should be formulated in the students by our English teachers

(i) Habit of Imitating. 

(ii) Habit of Repeating.

(iii) Habit of Spelling.

(iv) Habit of correct use of language.

(v) Habit of correct pronunciation.

(vi) Habit of consulting dictionary. 

(vii) Habit of going of library.

(viii) Habit of reading of newspapers, journals, magazines and story books.

5. The Principle of Using Mother-Tongue

Mother-tongue may be helpful in teaching foreign language. As Robert Paul says in his book "Understanding English"-"When we learn first language, we face the universe directly and learn to clothe it with speech. When we learn a second language we tend to filter the universe through the language already known." Some of the linguists are not in favour of this thinking. They think that mother-tongue create a negative role in teaching a foreign language. But researches establish this fact that the role of mother-tongue facilitate the teaching foreign language. P. Gurrey points out, "The teaching of mother-tongue and teaching of foreign language can support and assist each other." 

(6) The Principles of Learning by Doing

This principle emphasises on acquiring skill by doing. For a foreign language acqui sition written work, pronunciation, reading, spelling writing, hearing P are essential activities. Students should be given a good practice of t these.

(7) The Principle of Multiple Line of Approach

According to th R. N. Safaya', "The term-multiple line implies that one is to proceed P simultaneously from many different points towards the one and the $ same end." So, the teacher should adopt many approaches judicio usly and rationally selected to reach the goal." The different appro aches which can be used are illustrated here:-

(8) The Principle of Accuracy and Correctness 

Accuracy implies to the use of right or exact words. It means that words should be used which impart meaning for contexts. For this the following are imperative :

(a) The selection of words should be right,

(b) Use of words should be economical,

(c) Expression should be impressive.

Correctness stands for accuracy of pronunciation, intonation, spelling, structures and articulation. From the very beginning, the teacher should be both accurate and correct.

(9) The Principle of Concreteness

This principle is based on the assumption that knowledge can be stored in mind permanently. if it is gained through practical experience. A child can remember lotus' more if he has seen the flower himself than when he has not. The teacher, therefore, should begin with concrete things. As P. C. Wren says, "the first words of English should be names of things and those things should be there before him as they are named...... He must say 'book', 'desk' etc. and point to the things he names." For this, the teacher can use either classroom material or should bring with him handly material. Besides nouns, others, e.g. adjectives, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, verbs, adverbs should also be taught keeping in mind this principle.

(10) The Principle of Correlation with Life

While teaching, the subject-matter should be related to life, customs, traditions, pecularities and characteristics of the particular society to which the students belong. In this way, teaching can be more meaningful and learning can be transferred to real life situations.

(11) The Principle of Language Aptitude 

Specialists of language like Carroll and Spoont are of the view that, for learning a language, language aptitude is needed. There are some main com ponents of language aptitude which should be developed in students. These components are:

(i) Phonetic Coding-ability to code sound in such a way that it can be remembered.

(ii) Grammar-ability to handle grammar.

(iii) Rote memorization. 

(iv) Inferring linguistic rules, patterns, etc.

These are the various principles of foreign language teaching. If the teacher wants his teaching to be fruitful, if he wants the rate of learning to be accelerated, he must follow these principles in teaching.

(12) The Principle of Aural-Oral Approach 

The child learns speaking his mother tongue before reading and writing it. The beginners should be taught with speech lesson in which words and small sentences are to be heard and listened. Oral practice is the quickest way of learning a language. Oral approach is based on the psychological foundations which must be applied in the beginning stage. 

The following are the advantages of oral speech :-

(i) Promotes fluency of speech

(ii) Lays the foundation of correct Pronunciation

(iii) Sentence is the Unit of Speech the language

(iv) Mastering over functional grammar

(v) Strengthens listening and speaking skills

Linguistic Principles or Characteristics of a Language or General Principles of Foreign Language Teaching, Role and Functions of a Language

Utkarsh Education

 

Linguistic Principles 

or

 Characteristics of a Language

 or

 General Principles of Foreign Language Teaching

In India English is taught both as a second language and as a foreign language. The term 'second language' is used because it has become a lingua franca between speakers of widely diverse languages. It is essential for English teacher to teach in such a manner that desired goals can be achieved. Therefore, a sound knowledge of the principles of teaching English language is needed. Since, there principles are fruitful for all foreign language teaching. They are faptly called as general principles of foreign language teaching. These principles can also determine the nature and scope of language and so they can also be studied as the characteristics of language.

1. Language is learnt.

2. Language is a system.

3. Language is a system of systems. 

4. Language is vocal and verbal.

5. Symbols of language are arbitrary.

6. Language is unique.

7. Language is a means of communication.

8. Language is related to culture or language and society,

9. Language is ever changing.

10. Language has its own grammar.

11. Language has its sentence structures.

12. Language has some specific rules.

13. Language has its own vocabulary and terminology.

14. Language involves some actions (non-verbal signs and gesture). 

Role and Functions of a Language

Language plays an important role in human life. The hard fact is that human life has been made better by the use of a language. Language is a means of expression. It helps us in the process of communication. The human life would have been quite different. Language plays some important functions which are briefly explained as follows:

1. Expressive Functions: Every person has some feelings emotions, ideas and he/she wants to give an outlet in those experiences of life. By using a language, he is able to express his views. Thus language helps in the process of expression between the two individuals. Language develops mutual under standing. This activity of expressing oneself helps a lot in balancing the proper grown and development of the personality of an individual. Just giving an outlet to our pent-up feelings, emotions, ideas and thoughts, it helps an individual in a number of ways. By expressing himself in different ways, A person can become a good orator, a good poet and a writer. The way he/she can arouse the feelings of others, benefit others also.

2. Aesthetic Function: Language is a means to store cultural experiences in the form of literature and other written records for the posterity. There cultural experiences form the nexus of individual's realisation. It breaths life into our poets and dramatists. In the absence of language, such fine arts were not possible Language has its aesthetic aspect in other way also. Sometimes we have feelings or experiences of life, but we either do not express or are unable express due to one or other reason. Later those experiences are expressed by someone else who may be author or poet and then this expression gives us a lot of satisfaction. Certainly it helps in the proper growth and development of the individual.

3. Informative Functions: Language helps to an individual in giving information to others. Suppose a person has some important information in his mind and that he wants to pass on the others. It will be possible only if he is able to express himself and inform others. Only language helps in giving the information or message.

Sometimes, the teacher in the classroom situation plays the role of information given only. He will be able to do so only with the help of a language otherwise he fails to do his duty properly. Language has, thus, an informative function.

4. Directive Function: Language also helps in giving directions to others. Through a language any type of direction to proceed or not to proceed can be given to the police standing at crossing shows 'red light' to the traffic. It is not just communication of information. He is rather directing the whole traffic to stop all movement.

In the examination hall, the superintendent uses a language and gives directions to the candidates sitting there and draws the attention of all to follow certain rules and regulations. By using a language, he is able to give directions Thus, we find, that language has directive functions also.

5. Interactive Function: Language is not the one way communication. It has both way communication. The radio and television are the media of one way communication while telephone has both ways communication. In classroom teaching, interaction between teacher and students takes place with the help of verbal and non-verbal language. The question answer method is used to that interaction may occur in the classroom. Teaching is known as interactive process that is face-to-face encounters between teacher and students.

It is an important function of language. The interactive process is the means of development. The classroom interaction helps in the students' and teachers development. The seminars, conferences and group discussions are organised for interacting in group on certain issue or problem. The exchange of views and ideas are made through interaction.

6. Communicative Function: Language is the means or medium for sending informations, ideas, feelings to others. It provides expression to our thoughts feelings needs, opinions and other abstract things. It helps to communicate them to other persons in oral or written forms. Daily newspaper communicate events and development in written forms. The radio and television Prews items also communicate the news in speech form. Some code language is also used in the communicating message during war 

7. Evolutionary Function: The advancement of a country depends on its economic, social and technological development and the evolution of the country is governed by its national language. A rich language of a country contributes directly in the national development. English, being an international language. is also known as the window to the world. Its rich and advanced literature has contributed in the evolution of English society. The evolution of man and society is related to language geographical conditions have also influenced the language significantly, such as formation of letters, pronunciation or phonemes.

8. Function of Skill development: Teaching of English language also involves the development of some skills such as-Teaching of correct pronunciation, teaching of correct spellings of words, teaching of English grammar, idioms and figures of speech, teaching of metres of English poetry, teaching of Allumous to English mythology and introduction to the English literature. Thus English language helps to improve skill development among teachers.

9. Preservative Functions: Learning language is the God given gift or boon for human beings as man also uses language for inter-action and communication. During his life time; a man gains much knowledge and experience from daily life which can be preserved only in written form. Thus, acquired knowledge and experience and formed edifies of human knowledge which is available in written language.

The introduction of media and technology also have helped in preserving the ideas, views and artistic ability in original forms. The video recording, films, display in original language, speech pronunciation, style of language. We can enjoy the songs of poet and thoughts of great scholars even after their death. Thus, the language has the most important function in preserving the knowledge, ideas, feelings, views in original forms.