Types of Learning

Learning 

Types of Learning

Learning has been classified by psychologists and educationists in various ways depending upon the domain specific (cognitive, affective and conative) aspects of human behaviour, l.e.. verbal learning, concept learning, learning of principles, problem solving, attitudinal learning, and learning of skills or motor learning as compared to the learning according to the methods or techniques that are employed for the Introduction of behavioural changes, l.e, conditioning (Classical and Operant), discrimination learning, chain learning, serial learning, associative learning and insightful learning and so on.

However, as an alternative basis Gagne has classified learning into eight types in a hierarchical order. These eight types are the following.

1. Signal or classical conditioning

2. SR learning or instrumental or operant conditioning 

3. Chain learning

4. Verbal associate learning 

5. Discrimination learning

6. Concept learning

7. Learning of principles, and 

8. problem solving

1 & 2. Conditioning (Classical and operant)

Conditioning is considered by many psychologists to be the fundamental form of learning. Conditioning always involves the substitution of one stimulus for another and the forcing of an association between them. A child sucks a nipple when hungry and withdraws from painful stimuli. Thus a child acquires new patterns of responses. Both the classical and operant conditioning are given in details subsequently.

3 & 4. Chain learning (Verbal and motor)

There are mainly two types of chaining, L.e., motor and verbal. Chaining means the connection of a set of individual S R in sequence. Virtually all the learning taking place in formal education is verbal learning. The language we speak and the communication devices we use are the product of verbal learning signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds and voices are employed by the individual as essential instruments for engaging in the process of learning.

Similarly, when learning involves primarily the use of muscles, it is called motor learning. In this type, the individual acquires new muscular coordinations as a mode of response to some situation. Learning to walk, to operate a typewriter, to swim, to play hockey, to play a musical instrument, drawing a geometrical design, riding a horse, driving a car, flying a plane, etc., are examples of motor learning.

5. Discrimination learning

In this type of learning, the subject is presented with two or more stimuli which differ in some detail. Here the task is to distinguish between the two situations. An infant before he can talk, generally learns to distinguish between his mother and his aunt, between milk and some other drink, and a dog and doll and so on.

6. Concept learning

A concept is a generalized idea about things, persons or events in the form of a mental image. The concept of "tree" is a mental image that throws up the similarities or common properties of all the different trees we know. We will call a thing "tree" when it had some specific characteristics, the image of which we have already acquired in our mind on account of our previous experience, perception and exercise of imagination. All our behaviour, verbal, symbolic, motor as well as cognitive are influenced by our concepts.

7. Learning of Principles

It depends on learning of concept formation and other forms of learning. There is a large number of principles that every individual masters in order to function properly in the environment. Most of the classroom learning contributes to the development of principles.

8. Problem Solving

It comes at the highest stage in the hierarchy of learning process. This learning requires the use of the cognitive abilities like reasoning, thinking, the power of observation, discrimination, generalisation, imagination, the ability to infer. draw conclusions and try out novel ways and experimenting. etc., by the learner Details are given separately.

Learning

Learning

Introduction

Learning occupies a very important place in our life. When the child is born, his/her mind is just like a clean slate. As soon as he/she comes in contact with his/her environment, he/she starts reacting and in this process of interaction of thehelp  individual within his/her environment, the
foundation of learning are laid down. It is only with the of the learning that the child learns many things and modifies his/her behaviour. Thus, experience, direct or indirect is found to play a dominant role in moulding and shaping the behaviour of the individual from the very beginning. The changes in behaviour brought about by experience are known as learning. The following are some of the definitions of learning.

Meaning and Definition of Learning 

There are some such tasks which a man learns in his natural and social environment, such as climbing up a tree, swimming in water, speaking a particular language, etc. These activities are called learned actions by psychologists. The process of learning these activities is called learning. Psychologist Woodworth, has defined it in this form. In his words:

The process of acquiring new knowledge and new responses is the process of learning.   

                                                                                                                              -Woodworth

Crow and Crow have taken it in a little wider form. In their words:                     

Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes.                  -Crow and Crow

But most of the psychologists have defined learning as the process of behavioural change. In the words of Gates and others: 

Learning is the modification of behaviour through experience and training.

                                                                                                                 -Gates and others 

According to psychologist Charles E Skiner, man does not effect a change to his behaviour only for the sake of behavioural change, rather he also adjusts himself with the environment. He has defined learning on the basis of this fact. In his words:

Learning is a process of progressive behaviour adaptation.                    -C.E. Skiner

Hilgard has defined learning keeping these two factors before him. In his words: 

Learning is the process by which behaviour is originated or changed through practice or training.                         -Hilgard

According to Blair, Jones and Simpson, learning is neither behavioural change nor adjustment with the environment by behavioural change. According to them, learning should enable an individual to face the circumstances in the future, beside these two. In their words:

Any change of behaviour which is a result of experience and which causes people to face later situations differently, may be called learning.                      -Blair, Jones and Simpson

Some facts about the learning process:

1. Learning means acquisition of experience.

2. Learning means acquisition, retention and modification of experience. 

3. Learning is a change of behaviour.

4. Learning depends on practice and experience. 

5. Learning is acquisition of habit, skill and knowledge.

6. Learning is a process and not a product.

7. Learning is a continuous process and continues death.

8. Learning is purposive and goal directed.

9. Learning is a creative experience. 

10. Learning is Universal.

Nature of Learning

The nature and general characteristics of learning are as follows:

1. Learning is universal

Learning is not having any boundary. It is not restricted to any particular age, sex, race or cultures. It is applicable to all the living creatures, although, the degree of learning varies from creature to creature.

2. Learning is purposeful and goal directed

Learning is not an aimless activity. It provides clues and hints to the learner that there is something behind in learning and children learn with that hope and aspiration.

3. Learning is a continuous or never-ending process

Learning starts from birth and continues till death. It is a never ending process. At each stage the learner acquires new ideas and achieves something new, which is a continuous process.

4. Learning occurs both formal and informal situations

The child learns many things. He/She acquires new habits, skills and gains new information. Many things the child learns in a formal situation like that of a school. But a great many of these the child learns in informal situation in a family or with his/her friends when he/she is travelling, playing in an incidental manner.

5. Learning is the process of solving problems

In fact, all learning is problem solving. The child learns many thing during the course of time and try to apply all these to achieve a solution for a novel situation. Learning rules and principles help him/her to produce changes in his/her behaviour and abandonment of existing behaviour.

6. Learning is adjustment

Learning is the process of adjustment. The individual must learn to adjust himself/herself to the changes that take place around him/her. It prepares an individual for any adjustment and adaptation that may be necessary.

7. Learning Involves various dimensions of psychological and mental activities

For the effective learning both psychological, e.g.. motivation, Interest and ability and physiological bases, i.e.. nervous systems, brain, spinal cord, glands, etc., are essential. Therefore in schools children must be provided opportunity to learn by doing or learn by activity for effective learning.

8. Learning is more than academic mastery of subjects

In schools we generally think that learning is concerned with subjects and acquisition of information of facts. But learning is beyond to that and we learn different traits or characteristics, attitudes, values, interests, etc., rather than only mastery on academic subjects..

9. Learning is the function of practice

There is a saying that practice makes a man perfect. In this context practice does not mean repeating a response. It is repeated efforts of an individual to react to a situation effectively. Thus, practice help to drop out awkward, unhythmic and unnecessary responses and leads to improvement in learning.

10. Learning is a Process

Through learning modification of behaviour takes place. It constantly enlarges the child's understanding, leads to growth of abilities, perception and intellect. Though the entire learning situation is a very complex process yet the favourable environment can bring desirable and satisfactory growth on the part of the individual which is the ultimate goal of the learning.

11. Difference in learning is due to environment

12. Learning is a self-directed activity

13. Learning may be correct or incorrect

14 Learning is manifold in nature

15. Learning Involves perceptual operation and motor processes

Factors Affecting Influencing/Associated with Learning

The factors which are responsible for bringing about the betterment and improvement in learning or influence or associated with learning are given below :

(a) Maturation

Development of a child takes place because of two basic but complex processes-learning and maturation. Learning is possible only when a certain stage of maturation is reached. Psychologists have suggested that learning is effective if the activities or subject matter is at a rate commensurate with the development of the child.

(b) Motivation

Motivation is the very heart of the learning process. Motivation sets the activity which results in learning or it is the art of stimulating interest in the pupil and gives the direction to learning. Thus the teacher should apply various devices in the class room to motivate the children.

(c) The Organism and Perception

All knowledge is based on some sense perception. The loss of or defects in any sense means that knowledge and learning are impoverished in proportion to the loss. Learning is dependent on the relative perfection of the senses and the general condition of the organism. If there will be organic defects (visual, auditory, focal Infections and adenoids, etc.), then learning will be affected.

(d) Intellectual Ability or Capacity

It is a fact that various species of animals have different capacities to learn. Man is known to have greater capacity to learn then other living things. We know that human beings differ in their abilities to learn. On the basis of the Terman and Merril Intellectual classification we classify them as feeble. minded, normal or in the genius class in terms of their ability to learn. 

(e) Psychological Safety

Learning is a process of interaction in which the learner actively participates in the learning situation. Thus, the learner should be provided psychological satisfaction or safe situation so that he/she can participate freely and safely in the learning process.

(f) Readiness

If a person is ready to learn, the learning process will be more active. Thus the teacher should stimulate and develop the mental readiness in the children for effective learning in addition to seating arrangement, ventilation, light facilities and excessive noise.

(g) Drawing of a Study Schedule

A schedule is often useful in setting up regular habits of study and thus enabling the learner to make maximum use of his/her time and energy. A schedule acts as a challenge, as well as a guide and monitor. Thus drawing of a study schedule makes the learner attentive and persistent in learning.

(h) Attacking the Assignment Vigorously

Learning is an active, effortful process. There is no more effective method of study than merely to read the words of a book passively, waiting for the material somehow to register itself on the "mind". If the learner attack the learning task vigorously he/she can be a successful person than the passive group.

(i) Family Background and Socio-economic Status

Research in the field of family background and socio-economic status proved that learning achievement, attitudes, values and ability of the students are different due to urban and rural environment and socio-economic conditions of the family.

(j) Effect of Age on Learning

Learning capacity varies with age. Age accompanies mental maturation. The teacher, while constructing curriculum should keep in mind the various stage of the development of the child and adopt various methods of instructional process according to the age and grade level of the students.

(k) Environment

The progress and process of learning is very much under the influence of the environment. Therefore, the teacher should see that environment of the institution is congenial and cheerful otherwise it may affect the learning process, if it is not healthy.

(l) Fatigue and Bad Working Conditions

Fatigue is the state in which the organism is exhausted and requires rest. In a state of fatigue, the output is diminished or lowered efficiency or the quality is impaired. Fatigue may be muscular, sensory or mental. This may be due to bad seating arrangement, unhealthy atmosphere, poor environment, poor light, noise and over crowdedness, etc., affects the learning capacity. Similarly, learning is hampered by bad working conditions or distraction both at home and school.

(m) Difficulty, Meaningfulness and Length of Material

It is a fact that more difficult the learning material, the poor is the learning. Therefore, experimental studies have clearly indicated that more meaningful the material, the rapid is the learning. Being meaningful means that the material conveys some sense and has some associations and previous experience with the learner. There is little learning without meaning.

 PIAGET'S DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES

Jean Piaget advanced a quite new theory of development of cognitive abilities. He proposes that cognitive development proceeds through an orderly sequence of stages. The important concept of his theory of cognitive development is not the age at which the child moves from preferred mode of response to another but the fixed progression from one stage to another. The child cannot adopt the strategies of a later stage at an early stage of development without having first acquired and exercised the strategies of earlier stage.

The stages of cognitive development are related in that they represent forms of adaption but these forms are qualitatively different; that is the adaptive functions' are transformed as the child moves from one stage to the next. 

The Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget divides the stages of cognitive development in the following categories-

(1) The period of sensorimotor adaptation (since birth to 2 years).

The period from birth to two years is marked by an extraordinary development of mind. The infant starts from reflex domination and reaches the stage of sensorimotor schemes in a means to end relationship. The development of this period is very important for future life.

The intellectual development at this age is marked by four fundamental characteristics: (a) Object concept formation, (b) Coordinated space, (c) Objectified causality, and (d) Objectification of time.

The objects exist in the psychological world of an adult irrespective of their physical presence before the adult but in the world of the child they only exist when they are physically present and child looks at them, grasps them and acts with them.

2) The development of symbolic and preconceptual thought (2 to 4 years) 

At the end of sensorimotor period, the child starts dealing with the world by means of ideational representations. By imitation and other forms of behaviour, he demonstrates that he is capable of extending his world beyond here and now. These actions of the child indicate the use of symbols. By the age of 4 years the child develops way of representing the environment in the absence of perceptual cues and will build a set of symbolic schemes.

(3) The period of intuitive thought (4 to 8 years)

At this stage, the child is able to use concepts as stable generalization of his past and present experiences. His reasoning is not logical and is based on intuition rather than on systematic logic. The intuitive thought of the child is mainly concerned with stages or static configurations and neglects transformation. The child talks about this or that momentary static conditions but he cannot adequately link a whole set of successive conditions into an integrated totality by taking into account the transformations which unify them and render them logically coherent.

(4) The period of concrete operations (8 to 12 years) 

Concrete operation means that stage of cognitive development when the child is able to direct his attention away from the static conditions and can focus on the whole set of successive changes that occur in the process of transformation. At this stage the child can reason well. Transformation could return to its starting point. Piaget has given a long list of operations which make possible the handling of numbers in various relations to each other, the arrangement of objects into classes and sub classes and the ordering of objects according to one or more attributes. He has coined a term 'grouping' to describe a set of operations.

(5) The period of formal operations (from 12 years to adolescence) 

At this stage the child's thought process becomes quite systematic and reasonably well-integrated. These qualities of the child's thought process are evident when events are present. Reality guides his contemplation of possibility. He starts a form of hypothetico-deductive reasoning. The use of formal operations is what is called the con- trolling aspects of comprehending.

The child at this stage in his formal thinking can free himself of the here and now in a lawful and systematic way. His wisdom. lies in the masterful administration of the unforeseen. When an adolescent is faced with a problem, he uses formal operations to identify the variables that seem relevant to the solutions and then considers all the possible combinations of these variables.

The hallmark of formal operations period is the development of the ability to think in symbolic terms and comprehend content meaning- fully without requiring physical objects or even visual or other imagery based on past experience with such objects. Formal operations are the logical and mathematical concepts which are used in advanced conceptualization and reasoning etc. that is difficult to represent concretely